Antimicrobial Mechanisms and Effectiveness of Graphene and Graphene-Functionalized Biomaterials. A Scope Review

Abstract

Bacterial infections represent nowadays the major reason of biomaterials implant failure, however, most of the available implantable materials do not hold antimicrobial properties, thus requiring antibiotic therapy once the infection occurs. The fast raising of antibiotic-resistant pathogens is making this approach as not more effective, leading to the only solution of device removal and causing devastating consequences for patients. Accordingly, there is a large research about alternative strategies based on the employment of materials holding intrinsic antibacterial properties in order to prevent infections. Between these new strategies, new technologies involving the use of carbon-based materials such as carbon nanotubes, fullerene, graphene and diamond-like carbon shown very promising results. In particular, graphene-and graphene-derived materials (GMs) demonstrated a broad range antibacterial activity toward bacteria, fungi and viruses. These antibacterial activities are attributed mainly to the direct physicochemical interaction between GMs and bacteria that cause a deadly deterioration of cellular components, principally proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. In fact, GMs hold a high affinity to the membrane proteoglycans where they accumulate leading to membrane damages; similarly, after internalization they can interact with bacteria RNA/DNA hydrogen groups interrupting the replicative stage. Moreover, GMs can indirectly determine bacterial death by activating the inflammatory cascade due to active species generation after entering in the physiological environment. On the opposite, despite these bacteria-targeted activities, GMs have been successfully employed as pro-regenerative materials to favor tissue healing for different tissue engineering purposes. Taken into account these GMs biological properties, this review aims at explaining the antibacterial mechanisms underlying graphene as a promising material applicable in biomedical devices.

Progress in the Understanding and Applications of the Intrinsic Reactivity of Graphene‐Based Materials

“…The various influencing factors also contribute to the identification of multiple antimicrobial mechanisms. [ 6,98 ]…”

“…A few review articles are available for detailed information. [ 6,98 ] By functionalizing graphene or GO with antimicrobial peptides, enhanced membrane penetration and bactericidal efficiency have also been observed. [ 104 ]…”

Graphene: An Antibacterial Agent or a Promoter of Bacterial Proliferation?

“…Many GMs-based composites with metals, natural or synthetic polymers, sand, antibiotics, enzymes, hydroxyapatite, and hydrogels have been developed to accentuate antibacterial properties as well as to improve other critical characteristics for different applications such as thermal stability, porosity, and mechanical resistance ( Poornima Parvathi et al., 2015 ; Lim et al., 2012 ; Liu et al., 2014 ; Janković et al., 2015 ; Duan et al., 2015b ; Rojas-Andrade et al., 2017 ; Mohammed et al., 2020 ). Three main types of GM composites have been fabricated: dispersion, film, and hydrogel.…”

“…Because of its physicochemical properties, research groups have investigated the potential of GMs for a plethora of biotechnologies ( Tremblay et al, 2020 ; Zhang et al., 2011b ; Ji et al., 2016 ; Mohammed et al., 2020 ). The study of the interactions of GMs with living cells and more specifically with bacteria has led to discoveries that appear conflicting.…”

Development of a copper-graphene nanocomposite based transparent coating with antiviral activity against influenza virus

“…Graphene is composed of a single atom thick sheet of sp2 hybridized carbon atoms that forms a honeycomb lattice (Mohammed et al 2020;Palmieri and Papi 2020). This structure of graphene is responsible for its large surface area, excellent electrical conductivity, strong mechanical strength and unique physicochemical properties (Edwards and Coleman 2013;Eigler and Hirsch 2014;Novoselov et al 2012).…”