Analysis of the quinoa genome reveals conservation and divergence of the flowering pathways

Abstract

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a grain crop grown in the Andes renowned as a highly nutritious plant exhibiting tolerance to abiotic stress such as drought, cold and high salinity. Quinoa grows across a range of latitudes corresponding to differing day lengths, suggesting regional adaptations of flowering regulation. Improved understanding and subsequent modification of the flowering process, including flowering time, ensuring high yields, is one of the key factors behind expansion of cultivation zones and goals of the crop improvement programs worldwide. However, our understanding of the molecular basis of flower initiation and development in quinoa is limited. Here, we use a computational approach to perform genome-wide identification and analysis of 611 orthologues of the Arabidopsis thaliana flowering genes. Conservation of the genes belonging to the photoperiod, gibberellin and autonomous pathways was observed, while orthologues of the key genes found in the vernalisation pathway (FRI, FLC) were absent from the quinoa genome. Our analysis indicated that on average each Arabidopsis flowering gene has two orthologous copies in quinoa. Several genes including orthologues of MIF1, FT and TSF were identified as homologue-rich genes in quinoa. We also identified 459 quinoa-specific genes uniquely expressed in the flower and/or meristem, with no known orthologues in other species. The genes identified provide a resource and framework for further studies of flowering in quinoa and related species. It will serve as valuable resource for plant biologists, crop physiologists and breeders to facilitate further research and establishment of modern breeding programs for quinoa.

The genotype-dependent phenotypic landscape of quinoa in salt tolerance and key growth traits

“…Recently, the role of peroxisome proliferation in heat and drought stress 62 and heat stress responses in quinoa shoots 63 have been also demonstrated. Apart from these, other molecular analyses concerning evolution of quinoa genome, 64–66 the decision to flower, 67 inflorescence patterning, 68 and abscisic acid (ABA)-mediated seed dormancy and germination 69 have also been reported.…”

Prospects for the accelerated improvement of the resilient crop quinoa

“…Six homologues of Arabidopsis FT have been identified in quinoa ( Table 1 ). Of these, only four are expressed at detectable levels ( Golicz et al , 2020 ). In addition, several species, including Beta vulgaris , contain two orthologues of FT genes, FT1 and FT2 .…”

“…While SOC1 has four homologues in quinoa ( Table 1 , Fig. 2J ) ( Golicz et al , 2020 ) and PIE1 has two homologues ( Table 1 ; Fig. 2D ), a high-throughput genomic analysis failed to identify an orthologue of FLC ( Golicz et al , 2020 ).…”

“…2J ) ( Golicz et al , 2020 ) and PIE1 has two homologues ( Table 1 ; Fig. 2D ), a high-throughput genomic analysis failed to identify an orthologue of FLC ( Golicz et al , 2020 ). Despite the presence of a putative FLC orthologue (AUR62005643) in the quinoa genome, its similarity to several MADS-box genes that differ from FLC casts doubt about the identity of this gene as a true FLC orthologue.…”

Effect of island guano on the yield of two varieties of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd) on degraded soil

“…Esta expansión, causa problemas ambientales graves como erosión y pérdida de la capacidad productiva de sus suelos (Risi et al, 2015); además, de la práctica del monocultivo, la disminución del tiempo de descanso del suelo y el cambio climático hicieron que la quinua sea muy susceptible y débil a las plagas y enfermedades; en consecuencia, disminuye el rendimiento de la producción (Risi et al, 2015). La Chenopodium quinoa Willd no requiere grandes cantidades de agua (Ruiz et al, 2016), presenta tolerancia al estrés abiótico como la sequía, el frío y la alta salinidad (Golicz et al, 2019;Zou et al, 2017) se ha adaptado a un variado tipo de suelo (Bazile et al, 2016). Pero, en las fases fenológicas del cultivo tiene etapas críticas, donde requiere nutrientes, que deben ser cubiertos para el buen desarrollo de la planta (Conde et al, 2017).…”