Analysis of the moment arms and kinematics of ostrich (Struthio camelus) double patellar sesamoids

Abstract

The patella ("kneecap") is a biomechanically important feature of the tendinous insertion of the knee extensor muscles, able to alter the moment arm lengths between its input and output tendons, and so modify the mechanical advantage of the knee extensor muscle. However, patellar gearing function is little-explored outside of humans, and the patella is often simplified or ignored in biomechanical models. Here, we investigate patellar gearing and kinematics in the ostrich-frequently used as an animal analogue to human bipedal locomotion and unusual in its possession of two patellae at the knee joint. We use x-ray reconstruction of moving morphology (XROMM) techniques to capture the kinematics of the patellae in an adult ostrich cadaver, passively manipulated in flexion-extension. Moment arm ratios between the input and output tendons of each patella are calculated from kinematically determined centers of patellofemoral joint rotation. Both patellae are found to decrease the mechanical advantage of the extensor muscle-tendon complex, decreasing the tendon output force for a given muscle input force, but potentially increasing the relative speed of knee extension. Mechanically and kinematically, the proximal patella behaves similarly to the single patella of most other species, whereas the distal patella has properties of both a fixed retroarticular process and a moving sesamoid. It is still not clear why ostriches possess two patellae, but we suggest that the configuration in ostriches benefits their rapid locomotion and provides tendon protection.

Sesamoids in tetrapods: the origin of new skeletal morphologies

“…Developmental data on Lepidosauria and non‐avian reptiles in general, suggest a common ontogenetic trajectory among these lineages, with differences in the timing of ossification (Maisano, ; Jerez et al, ; Tsai & Holliday, ). The phylogenetic distribution of sesamoid characters has been assessed by several authors (Maisano, ; Gauthier et al, ; Montero et al, ; Regnault et al, ). Within this group, multiple losses or gains of sesamoid bones makes evolutionary reconstruction challenging (Baum & Smith, ; Regnault et al, ).…”

“…The phylogenetic distribution of sesamoid characters has been assessed by several authors (Maisano, ; Gauthier et al, ; Montero et al, ; Regnault et al, ). Within this group, multiple losses or gains of sesamoid bones makes evolutionary reconstruction challenging (Baum & Smith, ; Regnault et al, ). Thus, it remains unclear whether the origins and evolution of sesamoids in lepidosaurian species follow similar pathways.…”

“…Thus, it remains unclear whether the origins and evolution of sesamoids in lepidosaurian species follow similar pathways. Many sesamoids are identified only during post‐embryonic stages (Maisano, ; Jerez et al, ) and seem to be highly polymorphic, at least for Squamata (Regnault et al, , b , ; Fontanarrosa, ).…”

Functional capacity of kangaroo rat hindlimbs: adaptations for locomotor performance

“…Morphological specializations may exist at the knee in order to maintain a flat moment arm (e.g. patellae [47,48]), but identifying these is beyond the scope of this study.…”

Future of Ostrich Farming in Pakistan

“…Ostriches have acute eyesight and hearing and can defend themselves either by hiding themselves by lying flat against the ground, or by running away, in most threatened conditions can cause injury and even death with a forward kick from its powerful legs (kicking from the knees). Ostriches are unique in kneecap (double kneecap) configuration [28].…”