Analysis of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Amniotic Fluid Samples From Smokers and Nonsmokers

Abstract

Previous studies from this laboratory have focused on the characterization of blood protein adducts formed in utero as a result of maternal smoking during pregnancy. These biological samples, obtained during the third trimester of pregnancy, at delivery, have clearly shown a correlation between maternal smoking histories and exposure of the fetus to tobacco smoke carcinogens, including 4-aminobiphenyl and benzo(a)pyrene. In the present study, we examined exposure of the fetus during the first trimester of pregnancy to various environmental carcinogens, particularly those found in tobacco smoke. Amniotic fluid samples were obtained from women undergoing routine amniocentesis between 16 and 20 weeks gestational age. Amniotic fluid, produced by the fetal lungs and kidneys, is an important part of pregnancy and fetal development and this fluid surrounds the fetus throughout pregnancy. In these studies, samples of amniotic fluid were obtained from nonsmokers as well as 0.5 pack per day smokers, 1.0 pack per day smokers, and greater than 2.0 pack per day smokers. Maternal smoking status was determined by questionnaire as well as assessment of amniotic fluid for 39 Downloaded by [University of Kent] at 15:01 07 December 2014 40 S. R. Myers et al. cotinine via immunoassay. Amniotic fluid samples were extracted and analyzed for the presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). A clear correlation was found between levels of maternal smoking and PAHs in the amniotic fluid.Amniotic fluid 1-hydroxypyrene levels ranged from 1.54 ± 0.12 µg/L in nonsmokers to 11.72 ± 0.67 µg/L in women smoking greater than 2 pks/da, indicating approximately a 10X increase over nonsmokers. Similar results were found 3-hydroxybenzo(a)pyrene, 6-hydroxybenzo(a)pyrene, and 3,6-dihydroxybenzo(a)pyrene, metabolites of the carcinogen benzo(a)pyrene as well as with the 9-hydroxy and 9,10-dihydroxy metabolites of anthracene. The 5-hydroxymethyl metabolite of 5-methylchrysene was found to range in concentrations from 1.65 ± 0.11 µg/L in nonsmokers to 12.67 ± 0.79 µg/L in greater than 2 packs per day smokers.These results demonstrate that amniotic fluid can serve as a biological marker of exposure to tobacco related polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Identification of potentially harmful compounds detected at an early stage of pregnancy may prevent subsequent exposures to the fetus and as a result decrease the risk of potential genotoxic as well as teratogenic events.

Concentrations and Profiles of Urinary Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Metabolites (OH-PAHs) in Several Asian Countries

“…The measured concentrations of Σ 12 OH-PAHs in urine from China and India were similar to those reported for the U.S. population in 2001–2002 (geometric mean: 5610) . The concentrations of Σ 12 OH-PAHs determined in urine in our study were 1–2 orders of magnitude lower than those reported for occupationally exposed populations, such as coke oven workers in Poland (median: 155 000 pg/mL), and smokers in Germany (mean: 15 000 pg/mL) …”

“…The geographic pattern of PAH concentrations in the atmosphere of several Asian countries is consistent with the concentrations of OH-PAHs measured in urine from these countries. The concentrations of Σ 12 OH-PAHs in urine from Malaysia and Japan were comparable to those reported for Germany (mean: 3220 pg/mL) . The measured concentrations of Σ 12 OH-PAHs in urine from China and India were similar to those reported for the U.S. population in 2001–2002 (geometric mean: 5610) .…”

“…4 The concentrations of Σ 12 OH-PAHs determined in urine in our study were 1−2 orders of magnitude lower than those reported for occupationally exposed populations, such as coke oven workers in Poland (median: 155 000 pg/mL), 32 and smokers in Germany (mean: 15 000 pg/mL). 31 In general, no significant difference in Σ 12 OH-PAH concentrations was found for samples from various age groups or between females and males from any individual country, except for China and Korea. The concentrations of Σ 12 OH-PAHs increased with age for both males and females from China and were higher in males than in females from Korea (p < 0.05).…”

Maternal occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and small for gestational age offspring

“…4 PAHs and PAH-DNA adducts have been found in placental tissues of women, amniotic fluid samples and umbilical cord blood samples from newborns. [5][6][7][8][9][10] PAH adducts can disrupt the cell's microenvironment, 1 11 to which the rapidly growing and differentiating cells of the fetus may be particularly vulnerable. 12 PAHs may also lead to periods of fetal hypoxia through reduced placental blood flow.…”