Analysis of Air Pollution Migration during COVID-19 Lockdown in Krakow, Poland

Abstract

The historical analysis of particulate matter (PM) concentration proved that pro-clean-air legislation and grassroots movement have a positive impact on air quality in Krakow. However, when the temperature drops in late autumn, winter, and early spring, the problem of smog still occurs in the city. In a 24-hours averaging period, the concentration of PM 10 has exceeded EU norms in 10 days in pandemic March 2021. It is estimated that 50% of the carbon fraction in PM 10 measured in Krakow comes from domestic heating. This is mostly caused by the migration of air pollutants from neighboring municipalities (where the use of fossil fuels for heating is allowed) to Krakow (where this type of households heating is forbidden). In this paper, we analyzed PM 10 concentrations in Krakow and neighboring municipalities. Moreover, we showed the main migration directions of air pollutants in connection with wind direction. We used statistical analysis to examine the relations between PM 10 concentrations and other physical characteristics of the atmosphere. It includes measurements of pressure, temperature, and humidity. We were collecting data during early spring 2021 when car transportation was limited due to the COVID-19 lockdown in Poland. Car transportation in Krakow is responsible for up to 20% of the PM 10 carbon fraction concentration. It allowed for observation of air pollutions from solid fuel heating with minimum traffic-generated pollution background. The Airly© low-cost sensors (LCS) network was used for this study.

The influence of meteorological factors and terrain on air pollution concentration and migration: a geostatistical case study from Krakow, Poland

“…Adamiec et al 35 showed that thanks to the use of dedicated calibration techniques and appropriate validation of manufacturers’ indications, Airly sensors can complement reference measurements. Research carried out in Krakow with the use of these sensors also shows their high accuracy and compliance with the indications of a reference station, both on windless days 12 and during periods with strong winds 22 .…”

“…The air pollution problem in Krakow is critical. Despite many regulations prohibiting the use of fossil fuels for heating, pollutants still migrate to the city from external locations, making it one of the most polluted cities in the world 22 . The research shows the indisputable influence of meteorological factors on PM concentrations in the air.…”

Verification of the Perception of the Local Community concerning Air Quality Using ADMS-Roads Modeling

“…The introduction of the blockade affected the reduction of motor vehicle traffic. As indicated by studies conducted in other Polish cities during the COVID-19 pandemic, traffic at major intersections dropped by several tens of percent compared to 2019, the time before the pandemic, including in Krakow by 40% [ 78 ] and in Wroclaw by almost 30% [ 79 ]. As seen in Table 7 , most of the investigated roads were of the national and provincial type.…”

High-Resolution Urban Air Quality Mapping for Multiple Pollutants Based on Dense Monitoring Data and Machine Learning

“…However, in multicenter health studies, there are dense residents in many urban areas where air pollution exposures may vary greatly within a 10-km 2 or smaller grid cells. Third, the LCS sensors have higher spatial-temporal measurement resolution [5,30], but existing LCS-based methods still have some limitations. The portable monitoring devices are not necessarily accurate due to cost and volume limitations, and often focus on a specific area rather than the whole city [14].…”