An Overview on the Taxonomy, Phylogenetics and Ecology of the Psychedelic Genera Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Pluteus and Gymnopilus

Abstract

Psilocybin and psilocin, two psychoactive components found in “magic mushrooms,” have therapeutic potential in a number of mental health disorders without the addictiveness and overdose risks found in other mind-altering drugs, such as cocaine, methamphetamines and alcohol. Psychedelic mushrooms occur naturally, are wide distributed and easily accessible. The need for reviews and comprehensive field guides is urgent due to the recent surge of research into psychedelic mushrooms along with public interest. Psilocybin and psilocin are recorded in mushroom species of Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Pluteus, and Gymnopilus. This review discusses species identification, taxonomy and classification, available DNA sequence data and psychedelic species in Psilocybe, Panaeolus, Pluteus, and Gymnopilus, as well as similar looking genera that could be harmful.

Global species diversity and distribution of the psychedelic fungal genus Panaeolus

“…However, more complete surveys on the biogeography of Panaeolus spp. will be needed to service the various levels of regulation (biodiversity, ethics and knowledge sharing with traditional communities, conservation, commercialization, trade, use and movement of biological material, strain development, and clinical aspects) required by individual countries, and to protect their natural resources and cultural heritage against illegal trade and movement [ 4 , 19 , 22 , 113 ].…”

“…Furthermore, these mushrooms are also a source of self help, or assisted help, for individuals that does not require prescriptions. Several fungal genera are known to include psychedelic species that can produce psilocybin, with Psilocybe being the best known [ 4 , 22 ].…”

“…A number of powerful psilocybin-producing species are also known in Panaeolus [ 22 ] with species shown to produce psilocybin, its psychoactive metabolite psilocin, and other related alkaloids [ 19 ]. Hence species of Panaeolus, typified by Panaeolus papilionaceus [ 23 , 24 ], are known for their notable health benefits and hallucinogenic properties [ [25] , [26] , [27] , [28] , [29] , [30] , [31] , [32] , [33] , [34] , [35] ].…”

“…They can be easily grown on a number of substrates [ 47 ]. Family and subfamily relationships of Panaeolus remain complex, as well as the total number of species after previous taxonomic changes [ 22 ]. The genus was classified under incertae sedis due to its uncertain taxonomic level and unknown broader relationships [ 40 , 48 , 49 ].…”

Bryophilous Agaricomycetes (Fungi, Basidiomycota): A Review to Brazil

“…Distribution: In Brazil the bryophyte associated specimen was found in RS (Figure 2) [20]. The genus contains over 150 species distributed worldwide [67]. Occurs worldwide in Mexico, Australia, Canada, Sweden, Germany, United Kingdom, Spain, Netherlands, Costa Rica, Iceland, France, Argentina, New Zealand, Colombia, Russian Federation, Japan, among other countries [48].…”