An outbreak of hepatitis A associated with consumption of raw blueberries

Calder, Lester; Simmons, G. C.; Thornley, Craig; Taylor, Patricia E.; Pritchard, K.; Greening, Gail E.; Bishop, Jean

doi:10.1017/s0950268803008586

Cited by 146 publications

(55 citation statements)

References 12 publications

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“…Because many people may consume a batch of food or come into contact with the contaminated material, outbreaks involving large numbers infected people are common. The outbreaks of viral gastroenteritis are known to be mainly caused by norovirus (NoV) and outbreaks of viral hepatitis are caused by Hepatitis A virus (HAV) (Ramsay and Upton 1989;Reid and Robinson 1987;Calder et al 2003;Niu et al 1992;Hutin et al 1999) and, in the case of water, more rarely, Hepatitis E virus (HEV) (Jothikumar et al 1993).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Analytical Methods for Virus Detection in Water and Food

et al. 2010

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Potential ways to address the issues that relate to the techniques for analyzing food and environmental samples for the presence of enteric viruses are discussed. It is not the authors' remit to produce or recommend standard or reference methods but to address specific issues in the analytical procedures. Foods of primary importance are bivalve molluscs, particularly, oysters, clams, and mussels; salad crops such as lettuce, green onions and other greens; and soft fruits such as raspberries and strawberries. All types of water, not only drinking water but also recreational water (fresh, marine, and swimming pool), river water (irrigation water), raw and treated sewage are potential vehicles for virus transmission. Well over 100 different enteric viruses could be food or water contaminants; however, with few exceptions, most well-characterized foodborne or waterborne viral outbreaks are restricted to hepatitis A virus (HAV) and calicivirus, essentially norovirus (NoV). Target viruses for analytical methods include, in addition to NoV and HAV, hepatitis E virus (HEV), enteroviruses (e.g., poliovirus), adenovirus, rotavirus, astrovirus, and any other relevant virus likely to be transmitted by food or water. A survey of the currently available methods for detection of viruses in food and environmental matrices was conducted, gathering information on protocols for extraction of viruses from various matrices and on the various specific detection techniques for each virus type.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Analytical Methods for Virus Detection in Water and Food

et al. 2010

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“…However, other important food-and waterborne viruses causing either serious illness or large disease outbreaks should be considered. For instance, hepatitis A and hepatitis E viruses have been associated previously with serious foodborne diseases (4,45). Recently, enteroviruses caused meningitis in hundreds of bathers in Germany (17).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Detection of Noroviruses in Foods: A Study on Virus Extraction Procedures in Foods Implicated in Outbreaks of Human Gastroenteritis

Rutjes

Lodder-Verschoor

Poel

et al. 2006

Journal of Food Protection

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Disease outbreaks in which foods are epidemiologically implicated as the common source are frequently reported. Noroviruses and enteric hepatitis A viruses are among the most prevalent causative agents of foodborne diseases. However, the detection of these viruses in foods other than shellfish is often time-consuming and unsuccessful. In this study, three virus concentration methods were compared: polyethylene glycol (PEG) plus NaCl, ultracentrifugation, and ultrafiltration. Two RNA extraction methods, TRIzol and RNeasy Mini Kit (Qiagen), were compared for detection of viruses in whipped cream and lettuce (as representatives of the dairy and vegetable-fruit food groups, respectively). A seeding experiment with canine calicivirus was conducted to determine the efficiency of each virus extraction procedure. The PEG-NaCl-TRIzol method was most efficient for the detection of viruses in whipped cream and the ultracentrifugation-RNeasy-Mini Kit procedure was best for detection on lettuce. Based on the seeding experiments, food items implicated in norovirus-associated gastroenteritis outbreaks were subjected to the optimal procedure for a specific composition and matrix. No noroviruses were detected in the implicated food items, possibly because the concentration of virus on the food item was too low or because of the presence of inhibitory factors. For each food group, a specific procedure is optimal. Inhibitory factors should be controlled in these procedures because they influence virus detection in food.

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“…Data are available from outbreaks associated with berry consumption and other infectious agents: e.g. hepatitis A virus and frozen berries (Gillesberg Lassen et al, 2013;Rizzo et al, 2013), hepatitis A virus and raw blueberries (Calder et al, 2003), and Cyclospora cayetanensis and fresh raspberries (Herwaldt and Ackers, 1997). Risk factors presented below are also deduced from those presented for leafy greens in a previous Opinion (EFSA BIOHAZ Panel, 2014) and may not be supported by epidemiological or experimental evidence, unless specified in the relevant sections.…”

Section: Risk Factors For Microbiological Contamination During Agricumentioning

confidence: 99%

Scientific Opinion on the risk posed by pathogens in food of non‐animal origin. Part 2 (Salmonella and Norovirus in berries)

Publication¹

2014

EFS2

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Berries are a perishable food which can be consumed as fresh or minimally‐processed as well as a frozen ingredient added to many foods. Strawberries, raspberries, blackberries and blueberries are the most commonly consumed in the EU. Risk factors for berry contamination by Salmonella and Norovirus were considered in the context of the whole food chain. Available estimates of the prevalence of these pathogens in berries were evaluated together with mitigation options relating to prevention of contamination and the relevance of microbiological criteria. It was concluded that each farm environment represents a unique combination of risk factors that can influence occurrence and persistence of pathogens in berry production. Appropriate implementation of food safety management systems including Good Agricultural Practices (GAP), Good Hygiene Practices (GHP) and Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), should be primary objectives of berry producers. There is currently insufficient evidence to justify the establishment of microbiological criteria for Salmonella for fresh or frozen berries. Outbreaks associated with Norovirus in frozen raspberries and strawberries are an emerging public health risk, although it is not known if in these outbreaks contamination occurred at minimal processing or during primary production. It is currently not possible to assess the suitability of an EU‐wide Norovirus Hygiene Criterion at primary production for raspberries and strawberries. Microbiological criteria for Norovirus in berries are useful for validation and verification of food safety management systems, including HACCP‐based processes and procedures, and can be used to communicate to food business operators and other stakeholders what is acceptable or unacceptable, however there is insufficient data to provide a risk base for establishing a Process Hygiene and Food Safety Criteria for Norovirus in berries. Collection of appropriate data and subsequent risk‐based development of microbiological criteria to support improved control of Norovirus in frozen raspberries and strawberries should be considered as a priority.

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An outbreak of hepatitis A associated with consumption of raw blueberries

Cited by 146 publications

References 12 publications

Analytical Methods for Virus Detection in Water and Food

Analytical Methods for Virus Detection in Water and Food

Detection of Noroviruses in Foods: A Study on Virus Extraction Procedures in Foods Implicated in Outbreaks of Human Gastroenteritis

Scientific Opinion on the risk posed by pathogens in food of non‐animal origin. Part 2 (Salmonella and Norovirus in berries)

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