An Experience-Sampling Study of Depressive Symptoms and Their Social Context

Abstract

Both clinical and subclinical depression are associated with social impairment; however, few studies have examined the impact of social contact in the daily lives of people with depressive symptoms. The current study used the experience-sampling methodology to examine associations between depressive symptoms, social contact, and daily life impairment in 197 young adults. Depressive symptoms were associated with increased isolation, negative affect, anhedonia, and physical symptoms, decreased positive affect, and social and cognitive impairment in daily life. For people with more depressive symptoms, being with social partners who were perceived as close was associated with greater decreases in negative affect, as well as increases in positive affect. Ironically, participants with depressive symptoms reported spending less time with people whom they perceived as close, minimizing the protective effects of socializing. These results suggest that people experiencing depressive symptoms may be especially sensitive to the nature of social interactions.Key Words: Depression, experience-sampling method, ecological momentary assessment.(J Nerv Ment Dis 2011;199: 403Y409) D epressive disorders are among the most common psychological diagnoses, with lifetime prevalence estimates ranging from 16% to 31% for women and 11% to 18% for men (American Psychological Association, 2004). A substantial body of research indicates that clinical and subclinical levels of depression are associated with impaired social functioning and decrements in perceived social support. For example, low self-reported social support is highly correlated with the onset and outcome of depressive episodes (Billings and Moos, 1984). This is especially problematic because perceived social support appears to be protective against stressful life events (Cohen and Wills, 1985) and, thus, those with depressive symptoms may be deprived of a powerful buffer against life stress. Deficits in social functioning correspond to the severity of depressive symptoms and may improve when depression remits (e.g., Airaksinen et al., 2006). Furthermore, cognitive-behavioral therapy is associated with improvements in depression that co-occur with improvements in social functioning (Scott et al., 2000). Not surprisingly, treatments for depression, such as Interpersonal Psychotherapy (e.g., Klerman et al., 1984), often focus on the expression and treatment of depression within the social environment.A growing body of literature suggests that people with clinical and subclinical depression may be sensitive to the quality and closeness of social interactions. A recent study of nondepressed undergraduates (Panzarella et al., 2006) found that people who received more adaptive inferential feedback (i.e., feedback in which friends and family reframe life events in a more adaptive or positive light) experienced improvements in depressive symptoms, even after controlling for the effects of general social support and stressful life events. For example, a person with depressio...

The Social Context of Positive and Negative Affective States in Depressed Youth

“…The intensity of NA distinguished the groups, with youths with MDD reporting higher levels of NA across a variety of social contexts. This is consistent with other momentary sampling research in young people with high-risk (Schneiders et al, 2007) and depressive (Brown, Strauman, Barrantes-Vidal, Silvia, & Krapil, 2011;Larson, Rafaelli, Richards, Ham, & Jewell, 1990) symptoms. The MDD and control groups from the Silk et al (2011) study were similar in both reporting more negative emotion when alone versus with company.…”

“…The MDD and control groups from the Silk et al (2011) study were similar in both reporting more negative emotion when alone versus with company. This, too, is in line with past work in young people with and without high-risk symptoms (Schneiders et al, 2007), depressive symptoms (Brown et al, 2011), and depressive disorders (Merrick, 1992).…”

Trait and State Levels of Loneliness in Early and Late Adolescents: Examining the Differential Reactivity Hypothesis

“…These findings combined may indicate that lonely people benefit more from being with intimate company, or others that they perceive positively. It is important to note that similar results were found in late adolescents with depressive symptoms, in that adolescents with more depressive symptoms reported greater decreases in negative affect and greater increases in positive affect when they perceived their company as more intimate (Brown, Strauman, Barrantes-Vidal, Silvia, & Kwapil, 2011). However, it should be mentioned that despite the greater decreases in state loneliness when with intimate company in lonely adolescents, the levels of state loneliness were still higher in the lonely group compared to the nonlonely group.…”

The co-occurrence of zinc deficiency and social isolation has the opposite effects on mood compared with either condition alone due to changes in the central norepinephrine system

“…Children that are exposed to SI were found to be at elevated risk of depression [10], and SI also reduces the efficacy of treatment for depression [11]. In primary care, SI is often used for depression screening [12].…”