Objectives:To assess the effects of aerobic exercise training on neurocognitive performance. Although the effects of exercise on neurocognition have been the subject of several previous reviews and meta-analyses, they have been hampered by methodological shortcomings and are now outdated as a result of the recent publication of several large-scale, randomized, controlled trials (RCTs). Methods: We conducted a systematic literature review of RCTs examining the association between aerobic exercise training on neurocognitive performance between January 1966 and July 2009. Suitable studies were selected for inclusion according to the following criteria: randomized treatment allocation; mean age Ն18 years of age; duration of treatment Ͼ1 month; incorporated aerobic exercise components; supervised exercise training; the presence of a nonaerobic-exercise control group; and sufficient information to derive effect size data. Results: Twenty-nine studies met inclusion criteria and were included in our analyses, representing data from 2049 participants and 234 effect sizes. Individuals randomly assigned to receive aerobic exercise training demonstrated modest improvements in attention and processing speed (g ϭ 0.158; 95% confidence interval [CI]; 0.055-0.260; p ϭ .003), executive function (g ϭ 0.123; 95% CI, 0.021-0.225; p ϭ .018), and memory (g ϭ 0.128; 95% CI, 0.015-0.241; p ϭ .026). Conclusions: Aerobic exercise training is associated with modest improvements in attention and processing speed, executive function, and memory, although the effects of exercise on working memory are less consistent. Rigorous RCTs are needed with larger samples, appropriate controls, and longer follow-up periods.

This study tested whether self-concept discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1 983) provides a psychological model for distinguishing among different aspects of depression and anxiety. Nondepressed, slightly depressed, and moderately depressed undergrad uates filled out a variety of standard questionnaires the Beck Depression Inventory, Blatt Depressive Experiences Questionnaire, Emotions Questionnaire (measuring chronic rather than momentary affect), and Hopkins Symptom Checklist (Depression, Anxiety, Hostility, and Somatization subscales)as well as the Selves Questionnaire, which was created to measure self-concept discrepancy. The Selves Questionnaire asked subjects to list up to 10 attributes associated with each of six different selfconcepts. Each self-concept involved a particular domain of the self (i.e., the "actual" self, the "ideal" self, or the "ought" self) combined with a particular standpoint on that self (i.e., the subject's "own" standpoint or the standpoint of a significant "other"). To calculate the magnitude of discrepancy between any two self-concepts for a given subject, the attributes in each self-concept were compared to the attributes in the other self-concept, and the total number of attribute pairs that matched (i.e., synonyms) was subtracted from the total number of attribute pairs that mismatched (i.e., antonyms). Zero-order and partial correlations were then performed to examine the relation between various emotional symptoms and the different kinds of actualideal discrepancies and actual-ought discrepancies. As predicted, actual-ideal discrepancy was generally associated with dejection-related emotions and symp toms, whereas actual-ought discrepancy was generally associated with agitationrelated emotions and symptoms. The implications of these findings for previous theories and measures of depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem are discussed.

Two studies examined whether the type of emotional change experienced by individuals is influenced by the magnitude and accessibility of the different types of self-discrepancies they possess. In both studies, subjects filled out a measure of self-discrepancy a few weeks prior to the experimental session. Subjects were asked to list up to 10 attributes each for different self-states--their actual self, their ideal self (their own or others' hopes and goals for them), and their ought self (their own or others' beliefs about their duty and obligations). Magnitude of self-discrepancy was calculated by comparing the attributes in the actual self to the attributes in either the ideal self or the ought self, with the total number of attribute pairs that matched being subtracted from the total number of attribute pairs that mismatched. In Study 1, subjects were asked to imagine either a positive event or a negative event and were then given a mood measure and a writing-speed task. Subjects with a predominant actual:ideal discrepancy felt more dejected (e.g., sad) and wrote more slowly in the negative event condition than in the positive event condition, whereas subjects with a predominant actual:ought discrepancy, if anything, felt more agitated (e.g., afraid) and wrote more quickly in the negative event condition. In Study 2, subjects were selected who were either high in both kinds of discrepancies or low in both. Half of the subjects in each group were asked to discuss their own and their parents' hopes and goals for them (ideal priming), and the other half were asked to discuss their own and their parents' beliefs concerning their duty and obligations (ought priming). For high-discrepancy subjects, but not low-discrepancy subjects, ideal priming increased their dejection whereas ought priming increased their agitation. The implications of these findings for identifying cognitive-motivational factors that may serve as vulnerability markers for emotional problems is discussed.

There is substantial evidence for a relationship between depression and adverse clinical outcomes. However, despite the availability of effective therapies for depression, there is a paucity of data to support the efficacy of these interventions to improve clinical outcomes for depressed CAD patients. Randomized clinical trials are needed to further evaluate the value of treating depression in CAD patients to improve survival and reduce morbidity.

Abstract-High blood pressure increases the risks of stroke, dementia, and neurocognitive dysfunction. Although aerobic exercise and dietary modifications have been shown to reduce blood pressure, no randomized trials have examined the effects of aerobic exercise combined with dietary modification on neurocognitive functioning in individuals with high blood pressure (ie, prehypertension and stage 1 hypertension). As part of a larger investigation, 124 participants with elevated blood pressure (systolic blood pressure 130 to 159 mm Hg or diastolic blood pressure 85 to 99 mm Hg) who were sedentary and overweight or obese (body mass index: 25 to 40 kg/m 2 ) were randomized to the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet alone, DASH combined with a behavioral weight management program including exercise and caloric restriction, or a usual diet control group. Participants completed a battery of neurocognitive tests of executive function-memory-learning and psychomotor speed at baseline and again after the 4-month intervention. Participants on the DASH diet combined with a behavioral weight management program exhibited greater improvements in executive function-memory-learning (Cohen's Dϭ0.562; Pϭ0.008) and psychomotor speed (Cohen's Dϭ0.480; Pϭ0.023), and DASH diet alone participants exhibited better psychomotor speed (Cohen's Dϭ0.440; Pϭ0.036) compared with the usual diet control. Neurocognitive improvements appeared to be mediated by increased aerobic fitness and weight loss. Also, participants with greater intima-medial thickness and higher systolic blood pressure showed greater improvements in executive function-memory-learning in the group on the DASH diet combined with a behavioral weight management program. In conclusion, combining aerobic exercise with the DASH diet and caloric restriction improves neurocognitive function among sedentary and overweight/obese individuals with prehypertension and hypertension. (Hypertension. 2010;55:1331-1338.)