An effectiveness of artificial coral reefs in the restoration of marine living resources

Long-Term Stable Liposome Modified by PEG-Lipid in Natural Seawater

“…Natural seawater contains a higher concentration of various ions, including monovalent and divalent cations, which can interact with lipid heads and water molecules and then reduce the dipole potential of the membrane. − To investigate the effects of cations contained in the seawater, we evaluated liposome stability in electrolyte solutions that contain one of the cations, Na + , K + , Mg 2+ , or Ca 2+ , with a similar concentration found in nature (Table ). Notably, the order of survival rates exhibited a consistent trend even among different ion species (Na + and K + ) in the case of monovalent ions (Figure A,B). In the divalent cations (Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ ), the survival rate of 20 mol % DSPE-PEG liposomes was the highest (Figure C,D).…”

“…The inner solution was prepared so that the osmolality was the same as that of the seawater (1000 mmol/kg) . Six ionic buffers containing representative seawater cations (Na + , K + , Mg 2+ , and Ca 2+ ) , were prepared to discuss the effects of cations − on liposome stability. Chloride was used because the chloride ions have little effect on the membrane properties to neutralize the solution, and the osmolality was adjusted by glucose to be isotonic.…”

“…The stability of liposomes in natural seawater is still poorly understood. Natural seawater is an electrolyte aqueous solution containing a variety of components: ions, amino acids, and proteins from living organisms at the molecular level. − To improve liposome stability, the resistance to the ions should be essential because the ions are the most abundant molecules except for H 2 O in natural seawater . Previous studies have reported that lipid bilayers interact with ions and change their physical properties. − We consider that the interaction makes liposomes unstable, which should be solved to improve the stability.…”

Environmental impact of submerged and emerged breakwaters

“…(2020) combined a submerged breakwater with an artificial reef installation to compensate for the stability problem caused by local scour. The artificial reefs are also known to increase marine biodiversity, thus a have great potential to stabilize the breakwaters while promoting the environment ( Nguyen et al., 2022 ). To be more nature-friendly, submerged reefs constructed from recycled mollusk shell were introduced by Corbau et al.…”

Framed reef modules: a new and cost‐effective tool for coral restoration

“…These methods include laying stones/slates on movable grounds (Fox et al 2005;Fox et al 2019), pinning netting to rubbles and using metal mesh structures to secure corals to reef substrates (Raymundo et al 2007;Golomb et al 2020), drilling holes into substrates (Horoszowski-Fridman et al 2015), prenursing coral colonies within metal frames and grid plates (Lindahl 2003), using reinforcing steel rods to create specialized structures for transplanted corals (Williams et al 2019;Knoester et al 2023), and utilizing plastic discs/pins as colony holders (Shaish et al 2008;Rachmilovitz & Rinkevich 2017;Rinkevich 2021). Implementing these cost-effective practices not only reduces restoration expenses but also yields various positive effects, including increased coral coverage, enhanced recruitment of coral larvae, creation of new habitats for reef dwellers, and improved species diversity in restoration areas (Golomb et al 2020;Horoszowski-Fridman & Rinkevich 2021;Nguyen et al 2022). Despite these methodologies, areas frequently affected by major storms (e.g.…”