An ecological perspective on the effects of violence on children

Abstract

ⅢThis special issue of The Journal of Community Psychology contains a series of first-rate research reports on the community, family, and individual dynamics of violence and trauma in the lives of children and youth. Many of the authors are genuine pioneers in this field, and their work is both informative and thought provoking. From settings in the United States-e.g., Illinois, Oregon, Iowa, and New York-to countries around the world-e.g., Chile, Canada, Palestine, and England-these researchers have brought their considerable skills and talents to bear in understanding how context shapes the processes through which violence and trauma shape development. Reading their work stimulates some thoughts on my part. These thoughts are the focus of this commentary.The authors of an excellent edited volume on the mental health issues of children in war entitled their book Minefields in Their Hearts~Apfel & Simon, 1996!. This image captures the basic truth that war presents children and youth with serious developmental challenges, challenges that if unmet can lead to disaster. This much is clear. Children have been involved directly in the prosecution of war in extraordinary and increasing numbers throughout the 20th century. UNICEF estimates that whereas in 1900 the ratio of civilian to military casualties was about 1:9, in recent decades this pattern has reversed, and now stands at approximately 8:1~civilians to solders!. Children constitute a significant proportion of these civilian casualties.This shift reflects the changing nature of war. The technology of war-making increasingly emphasizes anti-personnel weapons that do not target specific individuals, and indiscriminate bombing and shelling, while the strategy of war increasingly emphasizes attacks on civilian infrastructure~whether it be in the saturation bombing of "conventional war" or the struggle for the "hearts and minds" of the population characteristic of insurgency-counter insurgency operations!.An understanding of the impact of war on children and youth is practically important in a large number of societies around the world, including countries which do not have overt war within their borders but do accept numerous refugees coming

Social Inequality and Racial Discrimination: Risk Factors for Health Disparities in Children of Color

“…Previous research has demonstrated that a cumulative representation of risk is a better predictor of poor outcomes in youth than a single-predictor model. [154][155][156][157][158][159][160] Awareness of the scientific need for and legitimacy of research on racial discrimination and child health must increase. 35 Federal agencies and peerreview committees should expect funded studies to include sufficient numbers of children of color to test the external validity of theories and research across populations of youth.…”

Role of Ethnic Identity in Participatory Processes That Facilitate Psychological Empowerment Among Urban Youth

“…However, this is a difficult relationship to predict because research has also suggested that when neighborhood problems are particularly high, this can be debilitating to residents who may withdraw in return (Foster-Fishman et al, 2009;Korbin & Coulton, 1997). In research with youth, exposure to community and school problems -specifically violence -has been linked to various emotional, social, and psychological difficulties (Aisenberg & Mennen, 2000;Buka, Stichick, Birdthistle, & Earls, 2001;Davis & Siegel, 2000;Garbarino, 2001;Reid, 2008;Veenema, 2001). Additionally, when researching the relationship between community problems and empowerment, Chinman and Linney (1998) suggested that communities that do not offer significant positive roles for adolescents reduce the adolescents' potential to become empowered and may actually have negative implications for them.…”

Developmental trajectories of adolescent victimization: Predictors and outcomes

“…Exposure to chronic victimization can lead to traumatic reactions which may result in greater expressed physical, psychological and emotional symptoms (Garbarino, 2001), which in turn, may contribute to lasting long-term effects (Carney, 2008). Stress from physical and verbal bullying has been found to elevate the levels of cortisol and may impact adolescent long-term mental health and memory functioning, affecting school achievement (Vaillancourt et al, 2011).…”