An application of principles of social learning to training in communication of empathy.

Abstract

This study investigated whether a videotaped, modeled-learning experience would facilitate the acquisition and transfer of training of a complex counseling behavior-communication of accurate, empathic understanding. The 111 subjects were assigned randomly to one of three treatment conditions: modeled-learning experience (Ti), consisting of an advance organizer, modeled-counseling interview, and covert practice session; treatment control (T 2 ), which involved reading about the counseling behavior; and control (Ta). Acquisition and transfer of training were inferred by significant differences in group scores in communication of accurate, empathic understanding as measured by the subjects' written responses to the 16 Carkhuff Helpee Stimulus Expressions and as rated using Scale 1 of the Carkhuff scales. Subjects in TV displayed a significantly higher level of functioning and these differences were maintained over time.

Research on Training Counselors and Clinicians

“…Carkhuff s discrimination and communication indexes, for example, only rarely correlate significantly with observer-rated empathy, warmth, or genuineness (Butler & Hansen, 1973;Carkhuff, Kratchovil, & Fried, 1968;Emener, 1973;. Other tests yield similar results (Ashworth, 1971;Dalton, Sunblad, & Hylbert, 1973;Eskedal, 1975;Perry, 1975), even frequently used ones such as the Michigan State Affective Sensitivity Scale (Green, 1973;Rye, 1970;Saltmarsh, 1973)-which has received only tentative validation (Campbell, Kagan, & Krathwohl, 1971)-and Porter's Counselor Skills Test (Blocksma & Porter, 1947;Demos & Zuwayliff, 1962, 1963)-which has not been empirically validated. The Affective Sensitivity Scale and the Carkhuff Discrimination Scale have been found to be significantly correlated with one another and with a newly developed (temporally reliable) measure, the Microcounseling Skill Discrimination Scale (Lee, Zingle, Patterson, Ivey, & Masse, 1976).…”

“…Reliability levels for written tests are often not reported, and are sometimes rather low when reported (e.g., Perry, 1975). Only Campbell et al (1971), Dalton et al (1973), and Eskedal (1975) described empiricallyverified acceptable reliability levels for such measures.…”

“…Goldberg, 1971). Some modeling investigations have also utilized audio or visual cues (e.g., an audible tone) to pinpoint the specific desirable actions for viewers (e.g., Dalton, Sunblad, & Hylbert, 1973). Still others have shown trainees both good and poor models, providing explicit cueing to teach trainees to accurately discriminate between the two quality levels (e.g., DiMattia & Zimmer, 1971;Frankel, 1971;Saltmarsh, 1973).…”

“…However, the remaining 19 training studies dealt with undergraduate experimental subjects as trainees (Bailey et al, 1977;Berenson et al, 1966;Dalton et al, 1973;DiMattia & Zimmer, 1972;Frankel, 1971; E. Goldberg, 1971;Kanfer & Pomeranz, 1965;G. Kelly, 1973;O'Connell, 1974;Payne & Gralinski, 1968;Payne, Weiss, & Knapp, 1972;Payne, Winter, & Ball, 1972;Rappaport et al, 1973;Reddy, 1969aReddy, , 1969bShoemaker, 1973;Stone & Stein, 1978;Toukmanian & Rennie, 1975;Uhlemann, Lea, & Stone, 1976).…”

A Process for Teaching Clinical Practice

“…A number of authors have developed approaches for teaching students general interviewing skills (Kadushin, 1975;and Gorden, 1980) as well as more specialized skills such as accurate empathy, assessment for substance abuse problems, and family therapy (Dalton et al, 1973;Blackmon, 1985;and Corrales et al, 1981).…”