Aluminium Exposure Through the Diet

Abstract

Aluminium (Al) is the third most common element in the Earth's crust [1] and is naturally present in the environment. Al is a versatile metal with several properties and has a wide range of uses. Al is used in different alloys with other metals such copper, zinc or magnesium [2].The concentrations of this metal in food and drink have been increasing over time due to the acidification of the soils that transfers the aluminium from the soil to the aquatic environment [3] and anthropogenic activities such as mining (bauxite extraction), aluminium industries, and others [2]. Diet is the main exposure route to metals [4]. Aluminium is found in different drinks and foods such as drinking water, where it is added as a flocculant (aluminium sulphate, Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3 ), processed foods, where it is used as an additive and as a result of the packaging used and even in fresh foods such as vegetables and fruit because of the Al contained in the soils [5].In addition, aluminium utensils and tea consumption are also responsible for the increase of the Al in the diet [2]. Tea leaves have been reported to have higher Al levels because tea plants are grown in acidic soils [5].Al is present in an ionic form as Al 3+. The absorption of Al depends on several factors such as the pH level, the presence of organic acids (citrate, lactate), etc [2,6].The oral bioavailability of Al, which is the amount that can be absorbed, in drinking water is around 0.3%, while this is approximately 0.1% in food and drinks [7]. Al absorption increases as the pH level decreases.Aluminium is a toxic metal that does not have a function in the human and animal organism [8]. The toxicity of Al depends on the exposure route and the solubility of the aluminium compounds [9]. Aluminium tends to accumulate in the body, in tissues such as the brain, bones, kidney and liver. Long-term exposure to low Al levels leads to toxic effects [10].Based on information provided by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), the exposure of the European population to Al is 28.6-214 µg/kg body weight per day [11].Because of the abovementioned reasons, different institutions have established maximum limit intake levels for aluminium. The EFSA has established a Tolerable Weekly Intake (TWI) of 1 mg Al per kg of bodyweight [7]. The FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, has evaluated the Al bioavailability and concluded by setting a Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake (PTWI) of 2 mg/kg of bodyweight/week [12], and this value is twice that the established by EFSA.Since Al is a toxic metal found in foods and beverages, the data previously obtained by our research group and others have been compiled to compare the levels of aluminium content in different types of food and drinks to study the toxic risk from the diet, and to compare the levels found over time to estimate the general variations in Al content. Data Collection MethodThe present study was conducted from March 2017 to May 2017. The review of the scientific papers was performed with online databases such as the Web of...

Multielemental Analysis of Bee Pollen, Propolis, and Royal Jelly Collected in West-Central Poland

“…Al is commonly found on Earth. However, due to anthropogenic activities, increasing Al content is observed in food [ 80 ]. Al accumulates in the brain, bones, kidney, and liver [ 81 ].…”

Aluminum environmental pollution: the silent killer

“…Table 1 shows the mean aluminum content in some food groups. It illustrates that vegetables, fruits, roots and tubers, and seafood are all high in aluminum content (Hardisson et al 2017).…”

“…In general, the concentration of aluminum in fruits and vegetables depends on different factors, including the acidity of the soil, the water used for irrigation, and the plant variety. As a result of these factors, Hardisson et al (2017) have shown that fruits and vegetables from different origins have different aluminum content. For example, it was reported that an average aluminum content of 32.8 mg/kg was found in bananas from Spain, while bananas from the USA have an aluminum content of 0.4 mg/kg (Soni et al 2001;González-Weller et al 2010).…”

“…For example, it was reported that an average aluminum content of 32.8 mg/kg was found in bananas from Spain, while bananas from the USA have an aluminum content of 0.4 mg/kg (Soni et al 2001;González-Weller et al 2010). Besides, some plants tend to accumulate aluminum more in their roots while others accumulate aluminum more in their leaves (e.g., tea) (Hardisson et al 2017). It was reported that carrots, spinach, cabbages, watercress, and squashes contain high level of aluminum (27.47 mg/kg), where the origin of these vegetables is Spain (González-Weller et al 2010).…”

“…Processed dairy products, mainly processed cheese, breakfast cereals, flour, cake, biscuit, baking powder, coffee, Fig. 1 Acid rain releases aluminum into the environment (Crisponi et al 2013) Table 1 Mean aluminum content in some food groups (Hardisson et al 2017…”