Alpha-Phellandrene and Alpha-Phellandrene-Rich Essential Oils: A Systematic Review of Biological Activities, Pharmaceutical and Food Applications

Abstract

Alpha-phellandrene is a very common cyclic monoterpene found in several EOs, which shows extensive biological activities. Therefore, the main focus of the present systematic review was to provide a comprehensive and critical analysis of the state of the art regarding its biological activities and pharmaceutical and food applications. In addition, the study identified essential oils rich in alpha-phellandrene and summarized their main biological activities as a preliminary screening to encourage subsequent studies on their single components. With this review, we selected and critically analyzed 99 papers, using the following bibliographic databases: PubMed, SciELO, Wiley and WOS, on 8 July, 2022. Data were independently extracted by four authors of this work, selecting those studies which reported the keyword “alpha-phellandrene” in the title and/or the abstract, and avoiding those in which there was not a clear correlation between the molecule and its biological activities and/or a specific concentration from its source. Duplication data were removed in the final article. Many essential oils have significant amounts of alpha-phellandrene, and the species Anethum graveolens and Foeniculum vulgare are frequently cited. Some studies on the above-mentioned species show high alpha-phellandrene amounts up to 82.1%. There were 12 studies on alpha-phellandrene as a pure molecule showed promising biological functions, including antitumoral, antinociceptive, larvicidal and insecticidal activities. There were 87 research works on EOs rich in alpha-phellandrene, which were summarized with a focus on additional data concerning potential biological activities. We believe this data is a useful starting point to start new research on the pure molecule, and, in particular, to distinguish between the synergistic effects of the different components of the OEs and those due to alpha-phellandrene itself. Toxicological data are still lacking, requiring further investigation on the threshold values to distinguish the boundary between beneficial and toxic effects, i.e., mutagenic, carcinogenic and allergenic. All these findings offer inspiration for potential applications of alpha-phellandrene as a new biopesticide, antimicrobial and antitumoral agent. In particular, we believe our work is of interest as a starting point for further studies on the food application of alpha-phellandrene.

Echinophora tenuifolia subsp. sibthorpiana—Study of the Histochemical Localization of Essential Oil

“…The cyclic monoterpene α-phellandrene was introduced for public use in the 1940s [ 60 ]. It represents a colorless liquid, characterized by a peppery, woody, and herbaceous aroma [ 60 ]. It could be found in cosmetics, food, and EOs.…”

“…It could be found in cosmetics, food, and EOs. Nowadays, α-phellandrene has been characterized by a broad spectrum of pharmacological activities, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antitumoral, analgesic, and insecticidal activities ( Figure 4 ) [ 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 ]. Alpha-phellandrene accelerated wound closure due to collagen deposition and demonstrated good wound-healing properties [ 64 , 65 , 66 ].…”

Dill

“…Even now, dill water also known as “gripe water” is commonly used in folk remedies and Ayurvedic medicine to treat digestive and sleep problems, especially in children. Dill is prescribed to alleviate flatulence and promote expulsion of the placenta during delivery, and to stimulate milk flow in lactating mothers 1,4,5,11,14–18 . Currently, preclinical research has identified antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, and anticancer properties of dill extracts, to name a few 5,6 .…”

“…Dill is prescribed to alleviate flatulence and promote expulsion of the placenta during delivery, and to stimulate milk flow in lactating mothers. 1,4,5,11,[14][15][16][17][18] Currently, preclinical research has identified antioxidant, antiinflammatory, analgesic, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, and anticancer properties of dill extracts, to name a few. 5,6 Recent clinical trials investigated dill and its extracts for managing risk factors for diabetes and cardiovascular disease, as well as in improving outcomes during labor and delivery.…”

Dill

“…1 • July/August 2023 promote expulsion of the placenta during delivery, and to stimulate milk flow in lactating mothers. 1,4,5,11,[14][15][16][17][18] Currently, preclinical research has identified antioxidant, antiinflammatory, analgesic, antimicrobial, neuroprotective, and anticancer properties of dill extracts, to name a few. 5,6 Recent clinical trials investigated dill and its extracts for managing risk factors for diabetes and cardiovascular disease, as well as in improving outcomes during labor and delivery.…”