Al-Ghazālī’s Virtue Ethical Theory of the Divine Names: The Theological Underpinnings of the Doctrine of Takhalluq in al-Maqṣad al-Asnā

Abstract

Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī’s (d. 505/1111) al-Maqṣad al-Asnā fī Sharḥ Maʿānī Asmāʾ Allāh al-Ḥusnā (“The Highest Aim in Explaining the Meanings of God’s Most Beautiful Names”) is more than just a commentary on the ninety-nine names of God. In setting out to expound on a virtue ethical theory of the divine names, the Maqṣad in effect amounts to a sustained theological meditation upon one of the most fundamental paradoxes of monotheism: how to locate and affirm both divine incomparability (tanzīh) and comparability (tashbīh). In order to avoid any semblance of theological immanentism, or “the affirmation of God’s comparability” (tashbīh), al-Ghazālī begins by positing that an unbridgeable chasm, or irreducible “disparity” (tafāwut), separates the Lord from the servant. This chasm accounts for a disconnect not only between God’s unqualified Essence and the human being, but also between the transcendent meanings (maʿānī) that reside in the Essence and our limited apprehension of those transcendent meanings in the mind. At the same time, he insists that this chasm does not annul the ethical relevance and ontological reality of the attributes (taʿṭīl). Rather, the latter are somehow comparable (tashbīh) and do serve as prototype for human ethical conduct. In addressing this apparent paradox, al-Ghazālī’s Maqṣad exudes a palpable theological anxiety. This article explores the ways in which he addresses this theological conundrum by grounding his treatise in Ashʿarī theology and Sufi ethics. It closely analyses his cautious use of diction, hyper-systematised exegetical methodology, and staunch commitment to a set of hermeneutical principles which serve to undergird his virtue ethical theory of the divine names. Later generations of commentators picked up on al-Ghazālī’s theological anxiety, and critiqued the work for excessive immanentism (tashbīh), excessive transcendentalism (tanzīh), or excessive hermeneutical systematisation (takalluf).

Psychotherapy through a Sufi Islamic lens: A dialectic of transcendence and acceptance.

“…constructs (Burkhardt, 1976(Burkhardt, /2008Casewit, 2020;Shah-Kazemi, 2010), a primary paradox to contemplate is the principle of tawhid or monotheism (Burkhardt, 1976(Burkhardt, /2008Casewit, 2020;Shah-Kazemi, 2010). This paradox is rooted in the shahadah (testament of faith): la ilaha illallah (i.e., "there is no god but God").…”

“…The overall emphases within Sufism on cultivating consciousness of inner motives and intentions (Schimmel, 1975; Winter, 1995) seem consistent with mindfulness-based traditions proliferating in the West today as an offshoot of Buddhism (see Germer et al, 2016). So is the Sufi emphasis on a mode of consciousness that requires the contemplation of paradox rather than the consummation of a chain of mental constructs (Burkhardt, 1976/2008; Casewit, 2020; Shah-Kazemi, 2010), a primary paradox to contemplate is the principle of tawhid or monotheism (Burkhardt, 1976/2008; Casewit, 2020; Shah-Kazemi, 2010). This paradox is rooted in the shahadah (testament of faith): la ilaha illallah (i.e., “there is no god but God”).…”

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“…Ghazali, whose works numbered in the thousands (2022, p. 42), was an exceptional personality who combined religious rulings with the principles of Sufism (Köprülü, 1976, p. 219). His skill in writing is attributed to brevity, clarity, and conciseness (Casewit, 2020). He was commonly known by his honorific title "Hujjat al-Islam," and his full name was Abu Hamid (Çağrıcı, 1996).…”

“…The figure under investigation in this research, Ghazali, is a thinker who regarded theology as an intellectual branch of knowledge, emphasized that it is not necessary for everyone at all times, and believed that someone in each locality should engage in this discipline to purify hearts of doubt concerning bid'ah (innovation) and deviation from the right path (Özervarlı, 1996, p. 505). Ghazali, an eminent theologian and Sufi moralist, garnered a wide readership and is unquestionably one of the most influential thinkers in Islamic history (Casewit, 2020). His writings have received more academic attention in the West than those of any other Muslim scholars (Mitha, 2001).…”