Air pollution and public health: emerging hazards and improved understanding of risk

Abstract

Despite past improvements in air quality, very large parts of the population in urban areas breathe air that does not meet European standards let alone the health-based World Health Organisation Air Quality Guidelines. Over the last 10 years, there has been a substantial increase in findings that particulate matter (PM) air pollution is not only exerting a greater impact on established health endpoints, but is also associated with a broader number of disease outcomes. Data strongly suggest that effects have no threshold within the studied range of ambient concentrations, can occur at levels close to PM2.5 background concentrations and that they follow a mostly linear concentration–response function. Having firmly established this significant public health problem, there has been an enormous effort to identify what it is in ambient PM that affects health and to understand the underlying biological basis of toxicity by identifying mechanistic pathways—information that in turn will inform policy makers how best to legislate for cleaner air. Another intervention in moving towards a healthier environment depends upon the achieving the right public attitude and behaviour by the use of optimal air pollution monitoring, forecasting and reporting that exploits increasingly sophisticated information systems. Improving air quality is a considerable but not an intractable challenge. Translating the correct scientific evidence into bold, realistic and effective policies undisputedly has the potential to reduce air pollution so that it no longer poses a damaging and costly toll on public health.

Extracellular vesicles released in response to respiratory exposures: implications for chronic disease

“…Airborne toxicants may originate from personal exposures such as tobacco smoking , from occupational exposures including nanoparticles, asbestos, and volatile organic chemicals (Kermanizadeh et al 2016;Paciência et al 2016;Umbright et al 2017), and from environmental exposures such as particulate matter (PM) from outdoor air pollution (Chen and Yang 2018). Chronic exposure to respiratory toxicants increases markedly the risk of developing lung disease, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and cancer (Bartal 2001;Kelly and Fussell 2015).…”

“…Further, these diseases share chronic inflammation and oxidative stress as common hallmarks (Barua, Sharma, and Dileepan 2015;Crotty Alexander, Shin, and Hwang 2015;Kelly and Fussell 2015;Siasos et al 2014;Valavanidis et al 2013), suggesting some overlap in the biological processes underlying disease development. Extracellular vesicles (EV) are secreted signaling entities whose production is modulated by pro-inflammatory and oxidative stimuli in vitro.…”

Use of simulated epithelial lung fluid in assessing the human health risk of Pb in urban street dust

“…The oral (ingestion) pathway, considered the critical exposure route when modelling public open space, residential, and commercial settings (DEFRA, 2014a), has been the focus of much research to assess the human risk assessment from exposure to environmental contaminants predominantly via hand-to-mouth (deliberate) or unintentional ingestion of soils and related materials (Boisa et al, 2013;Cai et al, 2016;Intawongse and Dean, 2006;Li et al, 2014;Lorenzi et al, 2012;Okorie et al, 2012;Oomen et al, 2002;Smith et al, 2011;Wragg et al, 2009;Wragg et al, 2011). However, given the increasing acknowledgement of the association of PM concentrations (the chemical composition, as well as the physical presence) with both short-term and long-term health consequences (Kelly and Fussell, 2015), and the recognition that it is the soluble fraction rather than the total element content that has more direct links to health effects (Adamson et al, 2000;Ghio and Devlin, 2001;Heal et al, 2005), the inhalation exposure pathway was the focus of this current study. Indeed, in many urban and high dust generating contexts it is now timely, given increasing evidence of the link between PM10s and a range of human disease pathologies (Kelly and Fussell, 2012;Kelly and Fussell, 2015;Uzu et al, 2011), to consider the potential inhalation burden and bioaccessibility of PHEs in airborne PM and other environmental samples with a particle size fraction b10 μm.…”

“…However, given the increasing acknowledgement of the association of PM concentrations (the chemical composition, as well as the physical presence) with both short-term and long-term health consequences (Kelly and Fussell, 2015), and the recognition that it is the soluble fraction rather than the total element content that has more direct links to health effects (Adamson et al, 2000;Ghio and Devlin, 2001;Heal et al, 2005), the inhalation exposure pathway was the focus of this current study. Indeed, in many urban and high dust generating contexts it is now timely, given increasing evidence of the link between PM10s and a range of human disease pathologies (Kelly and Fussell, 2012;Kelly and Fussell, 2015;Uzu et al, 2011), to consider the potential inhalation burden and bioaccessibility of PHEs in airborne PM and other environmental samples with a particle size fraction b10 μm. The probability of inhalation depends on the particle size fraction, air movement within the exposure routes, and breathing rate.…”

Evaluation of the Effects of Airborne Particulate Matter on Bone Marrow-Mesenchymal Stem Cells (BM-MSCs): Cellular, Molecular and Systems Biological Approaches

“…industrial, chemical or traffic emissions. Irrespective of the cause, toxic air pollutants adversely affect the health of an individual leading to morbidity and mortality [1]. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that three million premature deaths occurred worldwide in 2012, due to air pollution.…”