Agarose-Based Biomaterials: Opportunities and Challenges in Cartilage Tissue Engineering

Abstract

The lack of adequate blood/lymphatic vessels as well as low-potential articular cartilage regeneration underlines the necessity to search for alternative biomaterials. Owing to their unique features, such as reversible thermogelling behavior and tissue-like mechanical behavior, agarose-based biomaterials have played a key role in cartilage tissue repair. Accordingly, the need for fabricating novel highly efficient injectable agarose-based biomaterials as hydrogels for restoration of injured cartilage tissue has been recognized. In this review, the resources and conspicuous properties of the agarose-based biomaterials were reviewed. First, different types of signals together with their functionalities in the maintenance of cartilage homeostasis were explained. Then, various cellular signaling pathways and their significant role in cartilage tissue engineering were overviewed. Next, the molecular structure and its gelling behavior have been discussed. Eventually, the latest advancements, the lingering challenges, and future ahead of agarose derivatives from the cartilage regeneration perspective have been discussed.

Evaluation of Marine Agarose Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering Applications

“…Agarose hydrogels have been previously used in TE due to their capability to reproduce the macromolecular structure of native ECM and their high capacity to absorb water, nutrients and oxygen, allowing cell adhesion, proliferation and differentiation [ 14 ]. In general, agarose biomaterials display temperature-dependent gelling capability and tunable biomechanical properties [ 26 ] that strongly depend on the concentration of agarose and water in the biomaterial [ 14 , 26 , 27 ]. The fact that these factors are controllable during the biofabrication process, makes possible the generation of different types of scaffolds with definite biomechanical properties for use in TE [ 27 ].…”

3D Bioprinting of In Vitro Models Using Hydrogel-Based Bioinks

“…Agarose is generally used in the biochemical analysis for DNA and protein separation during electrophoresis. It has also been broadly utilized as a hydrogel material for biomedical applications, due to its biocompatibility, abundance, and simple gelation behavior resulting from temperature shifts [ 115 , 116 ]. To improve its printability and/or interaction with cells, agarose has been mixed with other bioactive polymers and molecules (e.g., collagen, fibrin, alginate) [ 117 , 118 ].…”

Progress in Modern Marine Biomaterials Research

“…Self-gelling properties and adjustable mechanical stability [220,221] of agarose gels are crucial for their use. For example, non-toxic [222] and biodegradable agarose gels have been effectively used in implantation surgery [219], wound healing, cartilage [223], cardiac, bone and nervous system [224], and regeneration as well as skin tissue engineering [225,226]. These directions are based on tunable features of agarose, which can result in adjustable characteristics similar to native tissues [225].…”