“…TiO 2 has been used as the primary photoelectrode for DSSCs, owing to its low cost and high flexibility, energy conversion efficiency, and physical stability. Therefore, to increase the energy conversion efficiency of DSSCs, some presumable methods have been reported for improving the properties of TiO 2 , such as chemically modified surface, combination with different semiconductors (ZnO, ZrO 2 , Nb 2 O 5 , In 2 O 3 , La 2 O 3 ) [2e4], metal doping (Ag, W, Zn, Cd, Ta, Zr) [2,3,13,14], and nitrogen doping [2,5,15,16].…”