Adverse Effects of Inactivated Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccine—Possible Causes Analysis and Countermeasures

Abstract

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an infectious and sometimes fatal viral disease that affects cloven-hoofed animals, and Chinese government adopts compulsory immunization measures for FMD. The adverse effects of FMD vaccine to pigs, cattle and goats have been reported increasingly frequent during the spring and autumn seasons when large numbers of farm livestock are vaccinated. The financial losses caused by vaccine adverse effects have been a serious concern for both farmers and primary prevention personnel. There are various causative factors reported to involve into adverse effect of FMD vaccine, including the inappropriate vaccine production, transportation and storage, livestock poor tolerance, and unqualified vaccinating manipulations. Symptomatic treatment and early drug prevention have a certain effect on the adverse effects. To analyze causes and propose countermeasures, in the current study possible reasons during the production and processing procedures of inactivated FMD vaccine were reviewed and corresponding countermeasures were recommended. The review may provide references for better use of vaccine to prevent FMD.

Analysis of Acute Phase Response Using Acute Phase Proteins Following Simultaneous Vaccination of Lumpy Skin Disease and Foot-and-Mouth Disease

“…In another study, decreased milk yield was noted between 6-12 days after vaccination, which subsequently recovered to the pre-vaccination milk yield by day 28 post-vaccination [16]. The time when post-vaccination clinical signs appear coincides with the time frame of APP level elevation [5,16,23,24]. In an in vitro study investigating capripoxvirus vaccines, by Varshovi et al, the concentration of cytokines, IFN-gamma, and IL-4 increased at 7 days and peaked at 21 days after vaccination [19].…”

“…Previous studies have reported various responses following FMD vaccination, including fever, milk yield loss, and gastric disorder, which resolved after approximately 1-3 days [23]. According to Kim et al, white blood cell counts in the blood reached significantly high levels at 3 days after vaccination and decreased gradually [5].…”

Effect of Foot and Mouth Diseases Vaccination on Basic Semen Quality Parameter in Bali Cattle

“…In addition to the FMD vaccine, other postvaccination adverse effects on semen quality have also been reported in other vaccination programs in cattle and buffalo (Bhakat et al, 2015;Rao et al, 2017). Adverse effects after inactivated FMD vaccination can occur due to the intrinsic of the vaccine, inappropriate practices from standardized vaccination provision, the underlying disease condition of recipient animals, and imperfect ways of vaccine administration (Zhang et al, 2018;Wajdi et al, 2021). However, the healthy condition of the Bali cattle bulls at the time of vaccination, appropriate vaccine handling, and the use of new and correct needles and syringes for each injection may minimize the risk of an anaphylactic reaction in the Bali cattle bull in our study.…”

Standardized Plant Extract Alleviates the Negative Effects of FMD Vaccination on Animal Performance

“…For instance, cases of postvaccination allergic reactions, edema, and vesicles in the teat were reported in a dairy cattle herd 8 days after the annual FMD vaccination, leading to losses in production and, therefore, economic loss for the producer [6]. The financial losses originating from the adverse effects of vaccination have been a serious concern for both farmers and primary prevention personnel [7]. Various causative factors have been reported to be associated with the adverse effects of the FMD vaccine, including the tolerance capacity of livestock, inappropriate vaccine production, transportation and storage, and improper practices [7].…”

“…The financial losses originating from the adverse effects of vaccination have been a serious concern for both farmers and primary prevention personnel [7]. Various causative factors have been reported to be associated with the adverse effects of the FMD vaccine, including the tolerance capacity of livestock, inappropriate vaccine production, transportation and storage, and improper practices [7]. In recent years, herbal immune-modulators have been considered safe alternatives that are totally free from animal or human pathogens, and have also been reported to show some beneficial effects in terms of cost, distribution, and production [8,9].…”