Advancement in biosensors for inflammatory biomarkers of SARS-CoV-2 during 2019–2020

Abstract

COVID-19 pandemic has affected everyone throughout the world and has resulted in the loss of lives of many souls. Due to the restless efforts of the researchers working hard day and night, some success has been gained for the detection of virus. As on date, the traditional polymerized chain reactions (PCR), lateral flow devices (LFID) and enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) are being adapted for the detection of this deadly virus. However, a more exciting avenue is the detection of certain biomarkers associated with this viral infection which can be done by simply re-purposing our existing infrastructure. SARS-CoV-2 viral infection triggers various inflammatory, biochemical and hematological biomarkers. Because of the infection route that the virus follows, it causes significant inflammatory response. As a result, various inflammatory markers have been reported to be closely associated with this infection such as C-reactive proteins, interleukin-6, procalcitonin and ferritin. Sensing of these biomarkers can simultaneously help in understanding the illness level of the affected patient. Also, by monitoring these biomarkers, we can predict the viral infections in those patients who have low SARS-CoV-2 RNA and hence are missed by traditional tests. This can give more targets to the researchers and scientists, working in the area of drug development and provide better prognosis. In this review, we propose to highlight the conventional as well as the non-conventional methods for the detection of these inflammatory biomarkers which can act as a single platform of knowledge for the researchers and scientists working for the treatment of COVID-19.

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“…Increasing amounts of evidence suggest that a system-wide inflammatory response and a cytokine storm type syndrome plays a crucial role in the progression of COVID-19 and it is therefore now established to be one of the disease hallmarks [ [41] , [42] , [43] ]. This was attributed to the recruitment of immune cells triggered by a rapid rate of viral replication leading to the release of cytokines.…”

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“…According to Yao and coworkers (2020) and Tersalvi and coworkers (2020), the disease severity is directly related to the D-dimer levels ( 12 , 13 ). Garg and coworkers (2021) postulated that elevated levels of inflammatory biomarkers such as procalcitonin (PCT), C-reactive protein (CRP), ferritin (FT), and Interleukin-6 (IL-6) are indicators of the severity of COVID-19 infections ( 14 ).…”

“…By monitoring these biomarkers, infections with low SARS-CoV-2 RNA are also predicted in patients where traditional tests miss. In this area, nanoparticles are also used to develop several COVID-19 diagnosis methods ( 14 ). Several types of nanoparticles used in SARS-CoV-2 detection methods are given in Figure 1 .…”

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“…To be specific, chest CT scans showed relatively low specificity and only diagnose patients at the later stage after infections. Immunoassays were developed for the detection of immunoglobulin G (IgG) and immunoglobulin M (IgM) in serum samples (Carter et al, 2020; Ou et al, 2020), which showed high sensitivity and selectivity based on antigen‐antibody interactions (Garg et al, 2021). Unfortunately, it took approximately 13 days after infection for the seroconversion of IgG and IgM at a detectable level, making early diagnosis nearly impossible.…”