Advanced ultrasound techniques in small animal reproduction imaging

Abstract

Ultrasonography is the imaging technology of choice for the evaluation of the reproduction system and pregnancy in both humans and animals. Today, ultrasound equipments are smaller, cheaper, and much more efficient. These upgrades, along with image digitization, have pushed ultrasound into the point-of-care setting. The most recent advances of different ultrasound techniques and their potential use in reproduction imaging of small animals are described in this review. 2 | DOPPLER The Doppler effect describes a change in the wavelength of energy transmitted as sound waves as a result of motion of their source or their receiver. The most commonly used indices to describe the waveform of the spectral Doppler are resistance index (RI): RI = (S−D)/S, systolic/diastolic (S/D) ratio: S/D and pulsatility index (PI): (S−D)/A

Tail movements by late-term fetal pitvipers resemble caudal luring: prenatal development of an ambush predatory behaviour

“…From a functional viewpoint, the abundance and diversity of fetal movements and sounds in humans and other vertebrates appear to be obligate activities for successfully transitioning to postnatal environments [ 47 ]. This also may be the case for tail movements in fetal snakes that caudal lure shortly after birth.…”

Applications of Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound in Splenic Studies of Dogs and Cats

“…The fact that it is non-invasive, convenient when compared with other imaging modalities, and has the ability to simultaneously provide real-time anatomical and functional imaging makes this technology a go-to reference in everyday clinical practice, and it is developing an increasingly growing body of research, particularly in human medicine [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. Paralleling human applications, the use of CEUS in veterinary medicine has been pursued, but, despite some research papers regarding the use of CEUS in small animals and equines [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ], veterinary literature is much scarcer and based on a smaller number of cases and diseases. So, although CEUS has been extensively reviewed in human medicine [ 3 , 5 , 6 ], there is a noticeable lack of reviews concerning CEUS applications in animals, particularly for less studied organs such as the spleen.…”

Doppler ultrasonographic evaluation of medically treated female dogs with cystic endometrial hyperplasia–pyometra complex

“…[1][2][3] In recent years, several advanced ultrasound technologies have been developed, providing additional information on the examined organs or lesions and increasing the diagnostic sensitivity of two-dimensional ultrasound. 4 Specifically, Doppler ultrasonography provides information on organ blood flow, constituting a useful tool to diagnose numerous gynecologic lesions in several species. [5][6][7] In female dogs, this technique characterizes uterine artery blood flow by measuring several velocimetric factors and indexes, which may vary according to the underlying conditions.…”

“…Ultrasonography is the imaging technology of choice for female reproductive tract assessment 1–3 . In recent years, several advanced ultrasound technologies have been developed, providing additional information on the examined organs or lesions and increasing the diagnostic sensitivity of two‐dimensional ultrasound 4 . Specifically, Doppler ultrasonography provides information on organ blood flow, constituting a useful tool to diagnose numerous gynecologic lesions in several species 5–7 .…”