Additive Manufacturing of Material Scaffolds for Bone Regeneration: Toward Application in the Clinics

Abstract

Additive manufacturing (AM) allows the fabrication of customized bone scaffolds in terms of shape, pore size, material type, and mechanical properties. Combined with the possibility to obtain a precise 3D image of the bone defects using computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging, it is now possible to manufacture implants for patient‐specific bone regeneration. This paper reviews the state‐of‐the‐art of the different materials and AM techniques used for the fabrication of 3D‐printed scaffolds in the field of bone tissue engineering. Their advantages and drawbacks are highlighted. For materials, specific criteria, are extracted from a literature study: biomimetism to native bone, mechanical properties, biodegradability, ability to be imaged (implantation and follow‐up period), histological performances, and sterilization process. AM techniques can be classified in three major categories: extrusion‐based, powder‐based, and vat photopolymerization. Their price, ease of use, and space requirement are analyzed. Different combinations of materials/AM techniques appear to be the most relevant depending on the targeted clinical applications (implantation site, presence of mechanical constraints, temporary or permanent implant). Finally, some barriers impeding the translation to human clinics are identified, notably the sterilization process.

3D‐Printed Synthetic Hydroxyapatite Scaffold With In Silico Optimized Macrostructure Enhances Bone Formation In Vivo

“…[1][2][3][4][5][6] Nowadays, combination of several new technologies such as Computer-Aided Design -Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAD-CAM), Cone Beam Computed Tomography (CBCT) and high resolution stereolithograhy (SLA), [7][8][9][10][11] enable the fabrication of patient-customized 3D scaffolds with tailored dimensions, shape and internal design. [12][13][14][15] The internal design together with the surface properties are two major factors influencing bone regeneration performances of 3D-printed scaffolds. [16][17][18][19][20] Whereas the surface roughness depends on biomaterial composition and postproduction processes (sintering t°, coatings,…), [21,22] recent 3D printing technologies allow the manufacturing of custom-made scaffolds with a multitude of internal design.…”

Advances in 3D Printing for Tissue Engineering

“…The usefulness of biodegradable synthetic polymers (mainly aliphatic polyesters such as PCL or PLGA) in TE has already been investigated for many years [103,104]. The biodegradable aliphatic polyesters are characterized by relatively low toxicity [105]; however, the acidic oligomeric release, being the effect of polymer hydrolytic degradation, can initiate the inflammatory reaction [106], negatively affecting the tissue regeneration process [107].…”

Osseointegration Improvement of Co-Cr-Mo Alloy Produced by Additive Manufacturing

“…AM techniques can be classified in 3 major categories: powder-based, extrusion-based, and vat photopolymerization. Different combinations of materials/AM techniques may be an important fact, depending on the indications for clinical applications [ 28 ].…”