Acute Stress‐related Changes in Eating in the Absence of Hunger

Abstract

IntroductIonThe prevalence of overweight and obesity has increased worldwide to epidemic proportions (1). Obesity results from a chronic deregulation of energy balance, with energy intake exceeding energy expenditure, leading to the storage of the excessive energy as fat (2). This chronic deregulation of energy balance may be caused, in part, by stress, because in Western society high levels of ambient stress are abundantly present (3).Several human studies in laboratory settings indicate that, in adults, acute stress may influence energy intake (3-7). Acute stress alters food preference, eating frequency, and amount of energy intake (3,5). During stress, food preference is altered toward intake of sweet foods and foods with saturated fats, next to an increase in the intake frequency and amount of food intake (4,6,7). However, not all studies that investigated the relationship between energy intake and stress have yielded conclusive results (8,9). Stress may also result in a decrease in energy intake (8,9). These individual differences in response to stress may relate to eating behavior characteristics (4-7), as are determined using the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ). The TFEQ assesses three factors involved in eating behavior: dietary restraint, disinhibition, and hunger (10).An increase in energy intake during stress has been found in individuals with high scores on dietary restraint and/or disinhibition (4-7).A possible technique to study the effect of stress on food intake is the "eating in the absence of hunger" paradigm (11). Eating in the absence of hunger is the behavioral phenotype in which individuals eat when exposed to large portions of palatable foods in the absence of hunger. The paradigm has primarily been used in children (11) and was thought to resemble disinhibited eating patterns observed in adults (11). Therefore, the objective of our study was to investigate the effect of acute psychological stress on food intake, using the eating in the absence of hunger paradigm, in normal and overweight men and women, while taking dietary restraint and disinhibition into account. Methods and Procedures subjectsThe study was approved by the Medical Ethical Committee of the University Maastricht, and informed, written consent was obtained from all subjects. Healthy, medication-free, nonsmoking men (n = 65) and women (n = 65), 18-45 years and with a BMI of 20-35 kg/m 2 were recruited to complete all phases of this study. A medical history

Eating behaviour in treatment-seeking obese subjects – Influence of sex and BMI classes

“…This pattern of findings may points to an enhanced attentional focus of obese women on their eating behaviour as compared with their male counterparts. While dieting and eating disorders in general are more frequently observed in women than in men (Rutters, Nieuwenhuizen, Lemmens, Born, & WesterterpPlantenga, 2009) it is interesting to note that a similar sexdependent pattern is also found in our treatment-seeking and even very severely obese patients. While eating behaviour and treatment strategies in general should be assessed and defined, respectively, on an individual basis our present findings imply that women and men require different therapeutic approaches for the treatment of their obesity.…”

Donut worry

“…For instance, in one study by Epel et al (2001) women increasingly snacked on high-caloric sweet foods under stress exposure; a behaviour that has been interpreted as a function of their psychophysiological (cortisol) stress responsiveness. Numerous similar studies have found that people eat more after an experimental stressor in the lab (with a greater preference for sugary/fatt y foods) (Born et al, 2010;Epel et al, 2004;Habhab et al, 2008;Rutt ers et al, 2009;Zellner et al, 2006). These experimental fi ndings have been further supported by associative studies that established a strong link between daily stressors and an increased intake of fatt y and/or sweet foods.…”

Gene×cognition interaction on stress-induced eating: Effect of rumination

“…For instance, women increasingly snack on high-caloric sweet foods under stress exposure; a behavior that has been interpreted as a function of their psychophysiological (cortisol) stress responsiveness (Epel et al, 2001). Numerous similar results have found that people eat more after an experimental stressor in the lab (with a greater preference for sugary/fatty foods) (Epel et al, 2004;Zellner et al, 2006;Habhab et al, 2009;Rutters et al, 2009;Born et al, 2010). These experimental study findings have been further supported by associative studies that established a strong link between specific types of daily stressors and an increased intake of fatty and/or sweet foods.…”