Active versus passive learning and testing in a complex outside built environment

Abstract

A review of the evidence on active and passive learning in virtual environments (VEs) suggests that both conditions have shown superiority under some conditions of learning and testing, but there is no consistent outcome pattern. Measures of transfer between virtual and real environments have also revealed a variety of outcomes. Following either active or passive learning in a VE, experiment 1 assessed measures of orientation and distance estimation in that VE and in a real-world equivalent environment. On measures of direct and relative distance, more accurate estimates were found for active than passive VE explorers. A suggestion was also noted for the orientation estimates to benefit from real-world rather than VE testing. With an improvement to the procedure, experiment 2 found similar real versus virtual orientation judgements, suggesting that an opportunity for active learning during the test procedure probably influenced orientation measures in experiment 1. We conclude that the effects of interactivity are unreliable and vary with the measures used, and that testing in virtual and real environments leads to similar outcomes.

How Navigational Aids Impair Spatial Memory: Evidence for Divided Attention

“…In line with Aporta and Higgs (2005), other ethnographic research has cited decreased environment engagement as the main contributor to spatial memory impairment during guided navigation (Girardin & Blat, 2010;Leshed, Velden, Rieger, Kot, & Sengers, 2008). Cognitive research, on the other hand, has implicated lack of active investment in terms of mental effort and control (Parush, Ahuvia, & Erev, 2007;Péruch & Wilson, 2004), lack of spatial decision making (Bakdash, 2010;Bakdash, Linkenauger, & Proffitt, 2008), technological novelty (Ishikawa, Fujiwara, Imai, & Okabe, 2008), and Downloaded by [Florida International University] at 03:38 27 December 2014 divided attention (Fenech, Drews, & Bakdash, 2010). Clearly the debate has not been resolved, but whether this is because the contributing factors interact or because of wide methodological variation is unclear.…”

“…Desktop VEs are an excellent tool for this research because they provide a somewhat realistic analogue to real navigation while allowing for controls of both navigation and environment features (Loomis, Blascovich, & Beall, 1999;Péruch & Wilson, 2004;Ruddle et al, 1997). Moreover, virtual navDownloaded by [Florida International University] at 03:38 27 December 2014 igation can provide high fidelity data, outputting quantitative measures of navigators' position and orientation, for accurate assessments of navigation.…”

Virtual/Real Transfer of Spatial Knowledge: Benefit from Visual Fidelity Provided in a Virtual Environment and Impact of Active Navigation

“…Regarding its effect on the transfer of spatial learning from a VE to a real environment, it is even more difficult to reach a conclusion because only two studies have been conducted. 24, 39 Péruch et al 39 suggested comparing the results of active participants who controlled their movements with a mouse to those from participants who visualized a recorded route. After training in a VE, the participants were tested in both a VE and in the real world (in a neighborhood) via two…”

“…29,[34][35][36] Some studies have even reported that the superiority of active navigation depends on the spatial representation addressed by the recall tasks used. [37][38][39] Often, when a benefit is observed, it is generally claimed that the active learning optimize perceptual-motor integration particularly required to the construction of egocentric spatial representation (Landmark and Route levels). Regarding its effect on the transfer of spatial learning from a VE to a real environment, it is even more difficult to reach a conclusion because only two studies have been conducted.…”

Developmental time course of the acquisition of sequential egocentric and allocentric navigation strategies

“…Here 5-, 7-, and 10-year-olds were tested on the virtual reality adaptation of the StarMaze task (Iglói, Zaoui, Berthoz, & Rondi-Reig, 2009) previously used to assess navigation strategies in rodents (Rondi-Reig et al, 2006). The use of virtual environments has proved to be a good and reliable tool for studying spatial cognition in general (Péruch & Wilson, 2004) and in studying developmental patterns in spatial knowledge more specifically (Schmelter, Jansen, & Heil, 2009). The virtual StarMaze task consisted of a pentagonal maze with five radiating arms in which participants navigated to a goal.…”