Achieving optimal diabetic control in adolescence: the continuing enigma

Abstract

The transition from childhood through adolescence to adulthood is a difficult stage, particularly for patients with type 1 diabetes. The yearning for autonomy and independence, as well as the hormonal changes around the time of puberty, can manifest in poor glycaemic control. The focus on diet and weight increases the prevalence of eating disorders, compounding the difficulties in supervising diabetes patients. This can be exacerbated by the realisation that hyperglycaemia induces weight loss and the use of this knowledge to further manipulate diabetes control to gain a desired body image. The management of adolescents with type 1 diabetes is therefore challenging and requires close collaboration between psychological medicine and diabetes teams. This review describes the difficulties frequently encountered, with a description of four cases illustrating these points. Case 1 demonstrates the problem of needle phobia in a newly diagnosed patient with type 1 diabetes leading to persistent hyperglycaemia, the recognition of weight loss associated with this and the development of bulimia. The patient's overall management was further complicated by risk-taking behaviour. By the age of 24 years, she has developed diabetic retinopathy and autonomic neuropathy and continues to partake in risk-taking behaviour. Case 2 illustrates how the lack of parental support shortly after the development of type 1 diabetes led to poor glycaemic control and how teenagers often omit insulin to accommodate lifestyle and risk-taking behaviour. Case 3 further exemplifies the difficulty in managing patients with needle phobia and the fear of hypoglycaemia. Case 4 adds further weight to the need for parental support and the impact of deleterious life events on glycaemic control by manipulation of insulin dosage.

Diabetic neuropathy in children

“…They are also more likely to have hyperlipidemia, hypertension, obesity, hyperinsulinemia, and other risk factors that are associated with the development of cerebrovascular disease, renal impairment, and other serious diabetic complications. Adolescence is a challenging transitional period associated with a deterioration of glycemic control in T1D (McConnell et al, 2001;Peters and Laffel, 2011). Recognition of depression as a comorbidity is important (Gilmer et al, 2008) as appropriate intervention may improve survival (Richardson et al, 2008).…”

Cognitive functions and glycemic control in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes

“…These goals can only be achieved with knowledge, discipline, mental skills, self-control, and a psychic and social equilibrium (Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group ; Anonymous, 1994). Especially during puberty, owing to the related physiological, psychological and social changes, these requirements are difficult to maintain (Allen et al 1983 ;Johnson et al 1986 ;La Greca, 1988 ;La Greca et al 1995 ;McConnell et al 2001 ;Tubiana-Rufi, 2001 ;Schoenle et al 2002 ;Delamater, 2007 ;Gerstl et al 2008).…”

Weight Control Practices and Disordered Eating Behaviors Among Adolescent Females and Males With Type 1 Diabetes

“…Parent-adolescent relationships are sometimes challenged when a youth has diabetes, which can create distress and a greater risk for engaging in healthcompromising behaviors, including disordered eating habits (3,20). Parents are often unsure of appropriate limits for their youth with diabetes, which may increase family conflict.…”