A typology of hackers: Classifying cyber malfeasance using a weighted arc circumplex model

Abstract

Cyber attacks continue to increase in frequency and variety, making cyber malfeasance a rising area of study and a major policy issue. Categorizing cyber attackers aids targeted organizations in efficiently directing resources to enhance security. However, extant hacker typologies do not fully account for the multifaceted nature of cyber malfeasance, including the rise in socially and ideologically motivated hacking (e.g. crowdsourcing, hacktivism). I clarify the current state of field by uniting recent case studies on hackers with existing categorization techniques. Previous researchers have employed circumplex models-visualizations which depict relationships and boundaries between groups-as a way to visually organize hacker types. I propose an updated model-a weighted arc circumplex model-that is designed to represent the multidimensional nature of contemporary hacker types by offering a means of visually representing multiple motivations simultaneously. Finally, I demonstrate how archetypical circumplex models can be wed with sociograms to depict social and technical relationships between hacker groups.

Re-thinking Online Offenders’ SKRAM: Individual Traits and Situational Motivations as Additional Risk Factors for Predicting Cyber Attacks

“…Those investigations yielded several hackers typologies that mainly differentiate between hackers' level of malicious intents (for instance white, black and grey hackers [10]), skill levels (i.e. low, mid and high [11,12]), and motivation to launch a cyber attack (for instance, thrill, monetary gain, revenge, recreation, ideology and exploration) [13]. Consistent with these typologies, Parker [14] developed a model for assessing attackers' (both individuals and groups) potential threat to organizational information systems.…”

“…We believe that understanding cyber-criminals' goals in launching cyber-dependent crimes against an organization could improve security officials' assessments of potential cyber-risks to their organizations. Specifically, we suspect that online criminals' goals in launching cyber-dependent events could range from a desire to explore computer technology, the thrill of engaging in illegal activities, willingness to gain prestige among peers, revenge, obsession, ideology, or monetary gain [13]. Moreover, it is possible that cybercriminals are willing to engage in online criminal behaviors in order to obtain more than just one goal.…”

Social Psychology: An under-used tool in Cybersecurity

“…Recent recommendations in hacker typologies have been made to include the increase in social and ideological motivations in hacking, incorporating those who are seen as 'hacktivists', also a contentious term but meaning a combination of 'hacker' and 'activist' (Krapp, 2005). This growth of social and ideological motivations have been attributed in part to the fact that a generation has been raised in a time of digital evolution and innovation (Seebruck, 2015), with increased user generated content and unrestrained communication increasing the confidence and perception of power individuals possess. (Seebruck, 2015).…”

“…This growth of social and ideological motivations have been attributed in part to the fact that a generation has been raised in a time of digital evolution and innovation (Seebruck, 2015), with increased user generated content and unrestrained communication increasing the confidence and perception of power individuals possess. (Seebruck, 2015).…”

“…Typologies for hackers have been created and updated throughout the history of the term (Chantler, 1996;Landreth, 1985;Seebruck, 2015;Taylor, 1999). Recent recommendations in hacker typologies have been made to include the increase in social and ideological motivations in hacking, incorporating those who are seen as 'hacktivists', also a contentious term but meaning a combination of 'hacker' and 'activist' (Krapp, 2005).…”