A tale of ambiguity: citizenship, nationalism and democracy in Turkey

Abstract

We argue that historically the official Turkish nationalism and citizenship regime have been marked by an ambiguity that arises from the simultaneous existence of -and repeatedly occurring swings between -the ethno-centric and civicpolitical understandings of citizenship. We also suggest that the concept of territoriality, which took precedence over other factors in the creation of a new state in 1923, has functioned as a hegemonic reference in the official conceptualisations of the Turkish nation and self. The territorial focus, over time, has been conflated with the ethnic conceptualisations of the nation: both become the underlining elements of the discourse of official nationalism in Turkey, and are utilised in the successive reformulations of citizenship into the 2000s. Through the analysis of schoolbooks and curricula, we further argue that the major oscillations in nationalism nevertheless coincided with the ruptures that characterised the making of modern Turkey: modernisation, democratisation, globalisation and Europeanisation.

Citizenship, nationality and minorities in Turkey's textbooks: from politics of non-recognition to ‘difference multiculturalism’

“…The main signifier of the nation in the primary school textbooks of the 1920s was the territory of the new state that implied a civic understanding of the nation (Keyman and Kancı 2011). However, following the formulation of the Turkish History Thesis in the 1930s, the emphasis shifted into an ethno-cultural notion of citizenship (Ersanlı-Behar 1992).…”

“…Social Science textbooks include subunits titled 'Identity and Difference'. Yet these titles are covered by references to people's varying physical traits or different hobbies (Keyman and Kancı 2011). However, there are new attempts to include minorities such as Alevis under the discourse of tolerance following the AKP's recent 'Alevi opening' initiative (Kose 2010), exploration of which will be the focus of the next section.…”

Changes and Continuities in Citizenship Education: What kind of Citizenship Education does the 2018 Social Studies Programme of Study Envisage?

“…Thirdly, the new programme reflects a shift back to ethno-nationalism by using the concept of "Turkish [Türk] Citizenship" instead of "Citizens of the Republic of Turkey" (Kanci, 2009;Keyman & Kanci, 2011). This is because the former concept attaches citizenship to a particular ethnic identity, whereas the latter associates it with a legal and political structure (Kadıoğlu, 2007;Oran, 2014).…”

Women’s Coalitions beyond the Laicism–Islamism Divide in Turkey: Towards an Inclusive Struggle for Gender Equality?

“…Following the 1980 military coup, the 1982 Constitution defined Islam a constituent of the official ideology under the label "Atatürk nationalism". The cultural sphere became subject to strict state surveillance together with the introduction of compulsory religious education and the adoption of the "Turkish-Islamic synthesis" as a dominant educational narrative (Keyman & Kancı, 2011). Throughout this time, despite the compromises in the implementation of the laicism principle and conservative politicians' increasing emphasis on women's role as mothers and wives (Sancar, 2012), covered women remained excluded from the public sphere and gender equality activists (back then mainly Kemalist and socialist women) did not tackle the problematic relationship between laicism and gender equality.…”