A Systematic Review on Hate Speech among Children and Adolescents: Definitions, Prevalence, and Overlap with Related Phenomena

Abstract

Little is known about the current state of research on the involvement of young people in hate speech. Thus, this systematic review presents findings on a) the prevalence of hate speech among children and adolescents and on hate speech definitions that guide prevalence assessments for this population; and b) the theoretical and empirical overlap of hate speech with related concepts. This review was guided by the Cochrane approach. To be included, publications were required to deal with real-life experiences of hate speech, to provide empirical data on prevalence for samples aged 5 to 21 years and they had to be published in academic formats. Included publications were full-text coded using two raters (κ = .80) and their quality was assessed. The string-guided electronic search (ERIC, SocInfo, Psycinfo, Psyndex) yielded 1,850 publications. Eighteen publications based on 10 studies met the inclusion criteria and their findings were systematized. Twelve publications were of medium quality due to minor deficiencies in their theoretical or methodological foundations. All studies used samples of adolescents and none of younger children. Nine out of 10 studies applied quantitative methodologies. Eighteen publications based on 10 studies were included. Results showed that frequencies for hate speech exposure were higher than those related to victimization and perpetration. Definitions of hate speech and assessment instruments were heterogeneous. Empirical evidence for an often theorized overlap between hate speech and bullying was found. The paper concludes by presenting a definition of hate speech, including implications for practice, policy, and research.

Associations Between Classroom Climate, Empathy, Self-Efficacy, and Countering Hate Speech Among Adolescents: A Multilevel Mediation Analysis

“…The findings highlight the need to focus on contextual and intrapersonal factors when trying to facilitate adolescents' willingness to face hate speech with civic courage and proactively engage against it. Keywords hate speech, counter speech, empathy, self-efficacy, adolescents Hate speech can be defined as any harmful communicative form of expression that deliberately promotes, justifies, or disseminates hatred or prejudice toward particular social groups and minorities (e.g., LGBTQI+ people, people of color, people with Muslim or Jewish backgrounds, or refugees; Kansok-Dusche et al, 2022). Although hate speech is often discussed as an online phenomenon, it can also be carried out face-to-face (e.g., in schools) and without the use of information and communication technologies (Krause et al, 2021;Lehman, 2019).…”

Ist das (schon) Hatespeech? – Eine qualitative Untersuchung zum Verständnis von Hatespeech unter pädagogischem Schulpersonal

“…Für Hatespeech bei Jugendlichen sind solche Verflechtungen ein Forschungsdesiderat, da die bisherige Forschung Hatespeech entweder nur in Schulen (Lehman 2019 , 2020 ) oder ausschließlich digital erforschte (Kansok-Dusche et al. 2022 ). Da Schüler_innen Hatespeech gezielt so einsetzten, dass sie sich der Wahrnehmung von Pädagog_innen entzieht, ist eine positive Beziehung zwischen Schüler_innen und pädagogischen Fachkräften förderlich, da Betroffene das Schulpersonal dann eher in Konflikte einbeziehen (Lehman 2019 ; Tillmann et al.…”

Schulbezogene Programme zum Umgang mit Hatespeech – Eine kriteriengeleitete Bestandsaufnahme

“…Empirisch zeigt sich, dass Hatespeech außer-und innerhalb von sequenziellen Mobbingprozessen auftreten kann (Kansok-Dusche et al 2022;Blaya et al 2020;Wachs et al 2019). Im Hinblick auf Beteiligungsrollen fanden sich bisher mittlere Korrelationen zwischen Viktimisierung durch traditionelles Mobbing und durch Online-Hatespeech (Blaya et al 2020) sowie zwischen der Ausübung von Cybermobbing und der Ausübung von Online-Hatespeech (Wachs et al 2019).…”

“…Sie richtet sich, einer Verletzungsabsicht folgend, an Personen (direkt oder stellvertretend) und schädigt potenziell auf verschiedenen Ebenen (z. B. individuell, gesellschaftlich) (Kansok-Dusche et al 2022). Im Gegensatz zu Cybermobbing oder traditionellem verbalem Mobbing, welche begriffstheoretisch einen Individualbezug betonen (z.…”

“…"Frauen sind aufmüpfige Schlampen und man sollte sie verprügeln! "), die im Unterschied zu Mobbing nicht zwingend eines personalisierten Opfers bedarf (Kansok-Dusche et al 2022;Smith et al 2013;Schwertberger und Rieger 2021). Der Aspekt der Intentionalität verortet Hatespeech als auf Ausübende rekurrierende Handlung (engl.…”