Associations Between Classroom Climate, Empathy, Self-Efficacy, and Countering Hate Speech Among Adolescents: A Multilevel Mediation Analysis

Abstract

Although hate speech is widely recognized as an online phenomenon, very few studies have investigated hate speech among adolescents in offline settings (e.g., schools). At the same time, not much is known about countering hate speech (counterspeech) among adolescents and which factors are associated with it. To this end, the present study used the socio-ecological framework to investigate the direct and indirect links among one contextual factor (i.e., classroom climate) and two intrapersonal factors (i.e., empathy for victims of hate speech, self-efficacy regarding intervention in hate speech) to understand counterspeech among adolescents. The sample is based on self-reports of 3,225 students in Grades 7 to 9 (51.7% self-identified as female) from 36 schools in Germany and Switzerland. Self-report questionnaires were administered to measure classroom climate, empathy, self-efficacy, and counterspeech. After controlling for adolescents’ grade, gender, immigrant background, and socioeconomic status (SES), the 2-(1-1)-1 multilevel mediation analysis showed that classroom climate (L2), empathy for victims of hate speech (L1), and self-efficacy toward intervention in hate speech (L1) had a positive effect on countering hate speech (L1). Classroom climate (L2) was also positively linked to empathy for victims of hate speech (L1), and self-efficacy toward intervention in hate speech (L1). Furthermore, classroom climate (L2) was indirectly associated with countering hate speech (L1) via greater empathy (L1) and self-efficacy (L1). The findings highlight the need to focus on contextual and intrapersonal factors when trying to facilitate adolescents’ willingness to face hate speech with civic courage and proactively engage against it.

Effects of the Prevention Program “HateLess. Together against Hatred” on Adolescents’ Empathy, Self-efficacy, and Countering Hate Speech

“…Another finding related to H4 was that adolescents’ belief in their capability to deal with hate speech is positively associated with their engagement against hate speech. This finding is in accordance with a rich body of research on bullying, highlighting the crucial role of self-efficacy in actual defending behavior in favor of targets of bullying (Sjögren et al, 2020 ; Thornberg et al, 2020 ) and initial research on the relationship between self-efficacy and counter-speech (Wachs et al, 2023 ).…”

“…The findings highlight the need to provide adolescents with the ability to respond emotionally and understand the emotions of victims of hate speech to increase adolescents’ readiness to argue, disagree or express an opposing view to hateful statements or content. The present result is supported by initial research showing a negative association between empathy and hate speech perpetration (Celuch et al, 2022 ; Wachs, Bilz, et al, 2022 ) and a positive link between empathy and counter-speech (Wachs et al, 2023 ). Overall, the findings are also mirrored by research that found a negative relationship between empathy and intolerance and prejudice and a positive link between empathy and prosocial behavior (Boag & Carnelley, 2016 ; Pettigrew & Tropp, 2008 ).…”

“…A scale developed by Wachs et al ( 2023 ) was used to measure counter-speech (countering hate speech). Participants rated the following four items: “I tell the person that such statements are hurtful, “I ask the person to stop”; “I try to get the person to think by asking specific questions”; and “I say that the person is spreading false information (fake news).” All items could be answered on a five-point response scale from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (5).…”

“…This assumption is in line with burgeoning research on hate speech that revealed that higher levels of empathy were negatively associated with the perpetration and acceptance of online hate speech (Celuch et al, 2022 ; Wachs, Bilz, et al, 2022 ). Another study revealed that adolescents who can understand and share the emotions of peers who become targets of hate speech were more likely to counter hate speech in favor of the victim (Wachs et al, 2023 ). These initial findings of hate speech research align with numerous studies from related fields, which found unequivocally that higher levels of empathy were positively related to defending victims of bullying against peers who perpetrate bullying (Álvarez-García et al, 2021 ; Gönültaş & Mulvey, 2022 ; Shen et al, 2022 ).…”

“…Self-efficacy might be necessary for adolescents’ counter-speech, as they are more likely to intervene if they have confidence in their capacity to do so successfully. Indeed, initial research found a positive link between self-efficacy and counter-speech (Wachs et al, 2023 ). This finding aligns with myriad empirical research positing that adolescents who perceive themselves as self-efficacious in dealing with social conflicts, such as bullying (Sjögren et al, 2020 ; Thornberg et al, 2020 ), are more likely to intervene in favor of targeted peers.…”