A Revisit to the Formation and Mitigation of 3-Chloropropane-1,2-Diol in Palm Oil Production

Arris, Farrah Aida; Thai, Vincent Tiang Soon; Manan, Wan Nabilah; Sajab, Mohd Shaiful

doi:10.3390/foods9121769

Cited by 22 publications

(23 citation statements)

References 135 publications

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“…The residual color content in RBD palm oil was 1.9 ± 0.1 Red below the maximum value (≤3 Red) of refined palm oil color suggested by the Palm Oil Refiners Association of Malaysia [ 22 ]. The degumming process effectively removes the hydroperoxide content in RBD palm oil [ 23 ], which was assigned by reducing PV values in CPO and RBD palm oil ( Table 6 ). The determination of the fatty acid compositions is vital in assessing palm oil’s nutritional value.…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Influence of the Degumming Process Parameters on the Formation of Glyceryl Esters and 3-MCPDE in Refined Palm Oil: Optimization and Palm Oil Quality Analyses

Nidzam

Hossain

Ismail

et al. 2022

Foods

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The presence of glyceryl esters (GE) and 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol esters (3-MCPDE) in refined, bleached, and deodorized (RBD) palm oil is severely concerning to the palm oil consumer. In the present study, the influence of the phosphoric acid degumming process on the formation of GE and 3-MCDE and in the RBD palm oil was determined with varying the acid dose (0.03–0.06 wt%), temperature (70–100 °C), and reaction time (15–45 min). The experimental conditions of the acid degumming process were designed following the central composite design of experiments, and they were optimized using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) based on the minimal formation of GE and 3-MCDE in the RBD palm oil. The optimal experimental conditions of the acid degumming process were a reaction time of 30 min, phosphoric acid concentration of 0.06 wt%, and temperature of 90 °C. Under these experimental conditions, the minimal GE and 3-MCDE formation in RBD palm oil were determined to be 0.61 mg/kg and 0.59 mg/kg; respectively. Several analytical methods were employed to determine RBD palm oil quality, including color, phosphorus, free fatty acids (FFAs), peroxide values, and fatty acid properties. It was found that the phosphoric acid degumming of CPO effectively removed the phosphorus and hydroperoxide content without conceding the quality of palm oil.

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Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Influence of the Degumming Process Parameters on the Formation of Glyceryl Esters and 3-MCPDE in Refined Palm Oil: Optimization and Palm Oil Quality Analyses

Nidzam

Hossain

Ismail

et al. 2022

Foods

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“…It should be noted that other research has shown that certain metal ions, and particularly Fe 3þ and Fe 2þ , enhance the formation of 3-MCPD when vegetable oil is heated. 49 With heating to 400 C and addition of 1 g of either Al 2 O 3 , Fe 2 O 3 , or CuO, there were increases in the levels of PCDD/Fs detected in the smoke. No significant amounts of PCDD/Fs were detected when sucralose was heated in the presence of the metal oxides at 300 C. In general, these studies are effectively pyrolysis studies, which do not represent conditions during normal food manufacture.…”

Section: -Mcpdmentioning

confidence: 94%

Use of sucralose in foods heated during manufacturing does not pose a risk to human health

Gujral¹,

Carr²,

Tonucci³

et al. 2021

Toxicology Research and Application

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Regulatory agencies around the world have found sucralose to be a safe ingredient for use in food. A recent review by the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR) hypothesized that sucralose use in foods heated during their manufacture might pose a health risk, by resulting in the formation of certain chlorinated compounds; specifically, polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinateddibenzofurans (PCDFs) and/or free or bound 3-monochloropropanediol (3-MCPD), some of which are considered potential carcinogens. The BfR further encouraged the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), which is in the process of conducting a staged re-evaluation of a range of food additives, including sucralose, to specifically address their hypothesis. This paper reports the results of new studies requested by EFSA to analyze for the presence of PCDDs, PCDFs and 3-MCPDs in a range of foods. As requested, foods were prepared with typical sucralose use levels and thermally processed under typical food processing conditions. The presence of the compounds of interest were analyzed using validated and accepted analytical methods (e.g. US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA); American Oil Chemists Society (AOCS)). The results of these new analytical studies show no evidence for the formation of these compounds due to sucralose presence. This paper also reports a critical analysis of the studies cited in the BfR review as the basis for its hypothesis. This analysis shows that the cited studies do not represent food manufacturing conditions and are thus not reliable for predicting the fate of sucralose in foods. This work reaffirms that sucralose is safe for use in food manufacture, including when heating is required.

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“…One of the main disadvantages is the loss of substances responsible for healthy, pharmaceutical properties and technological interest in the oils, such as tocopherols, phospholipids, squalene, polyphenols, and phytosterols [ 5 , 18 ]. Another notable disadvantage of refining is the formation of undesirable compounds such as glycidyl ester, 3-MCPD-esters [ 19 ], harmful trans-fatty acids [ 5 , 20 ], and polymeric triacylglycerols [ 21 ]. These can directly influence the safety level of refined oils.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In this context, such refining process for crude oils should be undertaken with the aim of removing undesirable compounds and avoiding the least possible damage to desirable components [ 14 , 23 ]. It is also important to minimize oil and generate less levels of harmful compounds such as 3-MCPD-esters [ 19 , 23 ] and unhealthy trans-fatty acids [ 5 ]. Some review articles were devoted to describing refining process and technology involved as well as its effects on refined vegetable oils with an emphasis on chemical composition [ 23 – 26 ].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Refining Vegetable Oils: Chemical and Physical Refining

Gharby

2022

The Scientific World Journal

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This review presents recent technologies involved in vegetable oil refining as well as quality attributes of crude oils obtained by mechanical and solvent extraction. Usually, apart from virgin oils, crude oils cannot be consumed directly or incorporated into various food applications without technological treatments (refining). Indeed, crude oils like soybean, rapeseed, palm, corn, and sunflower oils must be purified or refined before consumption. The objective of such treatments (chemical and physical refining) is to get a better quality, a more acceptable aspect (limpidity), a lighter odor and color, longer stability, and good safety through the elimination of pollutants while minimizing oil loss during processing. However, the problem is that refining removes some essential nutrients and often generates other undesirable compounds such as 3-MCPD-esters and trans-fatty acids. These compounds directly influence the safety level of refined oil. Advantages and drawbacks of both chemical and physical refining were discussed in the light of recent literature. Physical refining has several advantages over chemical one.

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A Revisit to the Formation and Mitigation of 3-Chloropropane-1,2-Diol in Palm Oil Production

Cited by 22 publications

References 135 publications

Influence of the Degumming Process Parameters on the Formation of Glyceryl Esters and 3-MCPDE in Refined Palm Oil: Optimization and Palm Oil Quality Analyses

Influence of the Degumming Process Parameters on the Formation of Glyceryl Esters and 3-MCPDE in Refined Palm Oil: Optimization and Palm Oil Quality Analyses

Use of sucralose in foods heated during manufacturing does not pose a risk to human health

Refining Vegetable Oils: Chemical and Physical Refining

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