A Review on Historical Earth Pigments Used in India’s Wall Paintings

Abstract

Iron-containing earth minerals of various hues were the earliest pigments of the prehistoric artists who dwelled in caves. Being a prominent part of human expression through art, nature-derived pigments have been used in continuum through ages until now. Studies reveal that the primitive artist stored or used his pigments as color cakes made out of skin or reeds. Although records to help understand the technical details of Indian painting in the early periodare scanty, there is a certain amount of material from which some idea may be gained regarding the methods used by the artists to obtain their results. Considering Indian wall paintings, the most widely used earth pigments include red, yellow, and green ochres, making it fairly easy for the modern era scientific conservators and researchers to study them. The present knowledge on material sources given in the literature is limited and deficient as of now, hence the present work attempts to elucidate the range of earth pigments encountered in Indian wall paintings and the scientific studies and characterization by analytical techniques that form the knowledge background on the topic. Studies leadingto well-founded knowledge on pigments can contribute towards the safeguarding of Indian cultural heritage as well as spread awareness among conservators, restorers, and scholars.

A Multi-Analytical Approach to Investigate the Polychrome Clay Sculpture in Qinglian Temple of Jincheng, China

“…The Fe, O, Ca, S, Si, Al and K content, as assessed by SEM-EDS, also supported the presence of yellow ochre. Natural yellow ochre, also named as limonite, is hydrated iron hydroxide (FeO (OH) · nH 2 O), which is composed of a mixture of several iron-bearing minerals, the main component of which is goethite [ 39 ]. Goethite widely exists in many rocks, soils and ochre deposits [ 39 ], so the mineral with goethite as the main component is the most widely applied yellow pigment in ancient times.…”

“…Natural yellow ochre, also named as limonite, is hydrated iron hydroxide (FeO (OH) · nH 2 O), which is composed of a mixture of several iron-bearing minerals, the main component of which is goethite [ 39 ]. Goethite widely exists in many rocks, soils and ochre deposits [ 39 ], so the mineral with goethite as the main component is the most widely applied yellow pigment in ancient times. Minerals such as feldspar, quartz, dolomite and other carbonate minerals usually also exist in ochre as accompanying minerals [ 40 ], which could explain the elements of Ca, S, Si, Al and K identified in sample XSBD-4.…”

Advanced Monitoring and Conservation Strategies for Wall Paintings Impacted by Microbiological Degradation and Clay Minerals at Al-Qurna, Thebes West Bank (Luxor)

“…Mass movement phenomena, such as landslides or other forms of displacement, could potentially compromise stability due to the presence of the weaker shale as well as presnce of harmful clay minerals. Furthermore, an overabundance of iron content can induce color instability and adversely affect the durability of the plaster [69], thereby posing additional challenges to preservation efforts. For that, this work assurs that ongoing monitoring and maintainance are serious and highly required steps as indispensable strategies for preservation of those valuable wall paintings.…”

Books and Materiality

“…Traders carried lapis lazuli west, to the Mediterranean and Venice, where it was ground into pigments and sold throughout Europe. 1 Christian artists used this precious blue paint sparingly, for the colours of the Virgin Mary's robes or blue and gold initials in copies of holy texts (Sharma and Singh 2021;Schmidt et al 2016;Song et al 2021). Lapis lazuli reached as far as medieval Britain, where it was used to decorate the twelfth-century Bury and Dover Bibles, now MSS 2 and 3 in the Parker Library at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.…”