“…The second epidemiological transition occurred in the 1970s when man seemed to have controlled infectious diseases and focused on the fight against cancer, cardiovascular or neurodegenerative diseases and obesity among other conditions ( Chambaere et al, 2017 ). However, with the globalization of trade, international relations, and destruction of ecosystems, the third epidemiological transition occurred, marked by the appearance of re-emerging and emerging diseases such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections, Lyme disease, dengue fever, Zika virus, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF), epidemic neuropathy, middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS), severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) that are reversing, in some measure, the effects of the second epidemiological transition ( Ndow et al, 2019 , Geisbert and Jahrling, 2004 , Watkins, 2018 , Kojom and Singh, 2021 , de la Fuente and Rodríguez, 1999 ). Multiple factors affect epidemiological transitions, including pathogen, social, political, and environmentally associated risks such as interspecies pathogen transmission and diet and its effect on metabolism, immunity and the composition of the intestinal and lung microbiota ( Ndow et al, 2019 , de la Fuente and Rodríguez, 1999 , de la Fuente, 1999 , Weiss and McMichael, 2004 , Webby et al, 2004 , Petersen et al, 2018 , Rohr et al, 2019 , Cassotta et al, 2020 , Wang et al, 2021 , Farsi et al, 2022 ).…”