A Review on Cancer Immunotherapy and Applications of Nanotechnology to Chemoimmunotherapy of Different Cancers

Abstract

Clinically, different approaches are adopted worldwide for the treatment of cancer, which still ranks second among all causes of death. Immunotherapy for cancer treatment has been the focus of attention in recent years, aiming for an eventual antitumoral effect through the immune system response to cancer cells both prophylactically and therapeutically. The application of nanoparticulate delivery systems for cancer immunotherapy, which is defined as the use of immune system features in cancer treatment, is currently the focus of research. Nanomedicines and nanoparticulate macromolecule delivery for cancer therapy is believed to facilitate selective cytotoxicity based on passive or active targeting to tumors resulting in improved therapeutic efficacy and reduced side effects. Today, with more than 55 different nanomedicines in the market, it is possible to provide more effective cancer diagnosis and treatment by using nanotechnology. Cancer immunotherapy uses the body’s immune system to respond to cancer cells; however, this may lead to increased immune response and immunogenicity. Selectivity and targeting to cancer cells and tumors may lead the way to safer immunotherapy and nanotechnology-based delivery approaches that can help achieve the desired success in cancer treatment.

Targeting the innate immune system with nanoparticles for cancer immunotherapy

“…Given the importance of the immune system in cancer progression, immunotherapy, a type of cancer treatment that uses molecules and drugs to target definite immune cells to stimulate or de-block the immune system to destroy cancer cells, has attracted attention in recent years. 6,21 Although most types of immunotherapies are largely reliant on adaptive immunity T-cells, innate immune cells-mediated immunotherapies have also attracted more attention in recent years. Current cancer immunotherapy strategies are basically divided into five types: adoptive cellular therapy (ACT), immunomodulators, targeted antibodies, cancer vaccines and oncolytic virus therapy (Fig.…”

“…2). 6,21 Adoptive cellular therapy is a form of treatment that uses the cells of our immune system to eliminate cancer, and some of these approaches involve directly isolating our own immune cells and simply expanding their numbers, such as tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte (TIL) therapy and NK cell therapy, whereas others involve genetically engineering our immune cells to enhance their cancer-fighting capabilities, such as engineered T cell receptor (TCR) therapy, chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell or NK cell therapy. 22 Immunomodulators are molecules that act on the pathways that regulate the host immune system's activity to help fight cancer.…”

“…3,4 Immunotherapy is defined as a type of biotherapy and is based on the sensitization of the patient's innate and adaptive immune system to cancer, which increases selectivity and reduces side effects. 5,6 The prevalence of cancer immunotherapy in clinical trials has led to the selection of cancer immunotherapy as the ''2013 Breakthrough of the Year'' by Science. 6,7 Although immunotherapy has been shown to be efficacious, only a fraction of people and/or certain cancer types respond favourably to this treatment, mainly owing to the immunosuppressive microenvironment of the solid tumor and immune tolerance to mono-therapeutics.…”

“…5,6 The prevalence of cancer immunotherapy in clinical trials has led to the selection of cancer immunotherapy as the ''2013 Breakthrough of the Year'' by Science. 6,7 Although immunotherapy has been shown to be efficacious, only a fraction of people and/or certain cancer types respond favourably to this treatment, mainly owing to the immunosuppressive microenvironment of the solid tumor and immune tolerance to mono-therapeutics. 8 Moreover, the systemic delivery of immunotherapeutic drugs can also be responsible for severe auto-immune toxicities.…”

Current and Future Advancements of Raman Spectroscopy Techniques in Cancer Nanomedicine

“…An example is the use of nanomaterial-based vaccination strategies for further implementing T-cell cancer immunotherapy by inducing T-cell activation in vivo [ 39 ]. Another advantage of nanomaterial-assisted cancer immunotherapy is that by employing nanoparticles as delivery systems, the toxicity usually associated with immunotherapy can be avoided [ 40 ]. Despite the rapid progress in the development and implementation of increasingly sophisticated and multifunctional cancer nanotherapeutics, only a few of these nanodrugs are translated into clinically approved anticancer drugs [ 41 ].…”