“…Convolutional neural network (CNN) is one of the most effective neural networks that has shown its superiority in a wide range of applications, including image classification, recognition, retrieval, and object detection. CNNs typically consist of cascaded layers to control the degree of shift, scale, and distortion [49], which are input, convolutional, subsampling, fully connected, and output layers. They can efficiently learn various kinds of intra-class differences from training data, such as illumination, pose, facial expression, and age [50].…”