A review of lead poisoning from ammunition sources in terrestrial birds

Fisher, Ian J.; Pain, Deborah J.; Thomas, Vernon G.

doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2006.02.018

Cited by 295 publications

(184 citation statements)

References 87 publications

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“…The sequestration of contaminants into gonadal tissues and the significance of intergenerational transfer in reducing maternal body burden require further study in crocodilians. The deleterious effects of Pb on reproductive success, egg production, eggshell thinning, and embryo health has been more extensively documented in Aves (Fisher et al 2006 andrefs. therein, Watson et al 2009), and the toxicokinetic processes between mother and oocyte are likely similar among crocodiles (Grillitsch and Schiesari 2010).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Acute and chronic cases of Pb exposure can be fatal or lead to disorders of the nervous, gastrointestinal, reproductive, and circulatory systems. The epidemiology of Pb poisoning and toxicokinetics of Pb circulation and sequestration in analogous tissues and organs among different species, however, are poorly understood (Fisher et al 2006;Sparling et al 2010). Although many environmental contaminants are accumulated within organisms through inhalation or permeation of the integument, Pb intoxication in wildlife occurs primarily through oral ingestion (Nadjafzadeh et al 2013).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…After humans, most of the literature that addresses Pb as a metabolic poison focuses on Aves. The link between birds spanning a wide-variety of taxa and the ingestion of Pb is well documented (Fisher et al 2006;Lambertucci et al 2011;Naidoo et al 2012;and references therein). Recent research has established clinical concentration levels in bird populations due to the direct and indirect ingestion of Pb shot and fishing tackle, which has prompted several countries to ban recreationally-used Pbbased bullets and sinkers (Thomas 1997).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Blood lead concentrations in free-ranging Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) from South Africa

et al. 2016

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Generally crocodilians have received little attention with regard to the effects of lead toxicity despite their trophic status as apex, generalist predators that utilize both aquatic and terrestrial habitats, thereby exposing them to a potentially wide range of environmental contaminants. During July-October 2010 we collected whole blood from 34 sub-adult and adult free-ranging Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) from three separate populations in northeastern South Africa in order to analyze their blood lead concentrations (BPb). Concentrations ranged from below detectability (<3 μg/dL, n = 8) to 960 μg/dL for an adult male at the Lake St Lucia Estuary. Blood lead concentrations averaged 8.15 μg/dL (SD = 7.47) for females and 98.10 μg/dL (SD = 217.42) for males. Eighteen individuals (53 %) had elevated BPbs (≥10 μg/dL). We assessed 12 general linear models using Akaike's Information Criterion (AIC) and found no significant statistical effects among the parameters of sex, crocodile size and population sampled. On average, crocodiles had higher BPbs at Lake St Lucia than at Ndumo Game Reserve or Kosi Bay, which we attribute to lead sinker ingestion during normal gastrolith acquisition. No clinical effects of lead toxicosis were observed in these crocodiles, even though the highest concentration (960 μg/dL) we report represents the most elevated BPb recorded to date for a free-ranging vertebrate. Although we suggest adult Nile crocodiles are likely tolerant of elevated Pb body burdens, experimental studies on other crocodilian species suggest the BPb levels reported here may have harmful or fatal effects to egg development and hatchling health. In light of recent Nile crocodile nesting declines in South Africa we urge further BPb monitoring and ecotoxicology research on reproductive females and embryos.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Blood lead concentrations in free-ranging Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) from South Africa

et al. 2016

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“…Increasing independence in this population has contributed to recent increases in lead-related mortality, which are also likely evident from improved detection in the post-ban period with fewer deaths from undetermined causes. Similar to other vulture populations experiencing declines worldwide (Fisher et al, 2006;Ogada et al, 2012;Shultz et al, 2004), California condors are susceptible to large-scale poisoning events as a result of communal foraging behavior that puts several individuals at risk of exposure to a single contaminated carcass (Ogada et al, 2012). Progress toward recovery is not sustainable if the level of management required to ameliorate the threat of lead poisoning for the condor population remains the same, as the majority of investment has been put forth to reducing mortality rates rather than improving the viability of the reintroduced populations (Walters et al, 2010).…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 84%

Two decades of cumulative impacts to survivorship of endangered California condors in California

Kelly¹,

Rideout

Grantham

et al. 2015

Biological Conservation

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We investigated threats to the California condor (Gymnogyps californianus), a flagship endangered species, using individual data on survival during a 20 year period of intensive recovery efforts. Over the two decades of reintroductions, condors in California had an estimated median survival time of 7.8 years suggesting that 50% of condors are expected to survive in the wild long enough to contribute to recruitment. In general, annual mortality rates exceeded levels necessary for a stable population; however, mortality declined, reaching levels needed for population stability, during the second decade of re-establishment. Intensive management practices, including utility pole aversion training and clinical interventions to prevent lead-related deaths likely contributed to the decrease in mortality rates. Utility line collision and/or electrocution was an important factor causing mortality over the two decades; though, this threat has largely been mitigated through management and targeted efforts in high-risk areas. In the past, wildfires were not considered a major threat to survival of freeflying condors. However, our analyses suggest that forest fires are significantly linked to the hazard of death, and increased wildfire activity in California highlights this population's vulnerability to catastrophic losses from forest fire. Lead poisoning, which was a major driver in the population's decline, was a leading cause of death accounting for the greatest adult mortality, and lead exposure remains the most significant threat. Recent lead ammunition reduction efforts in the condor range in California hold promise for improving the recovery potential for this population.

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“…a loss of almost one million waterfowl per winter (Mateo 2009). In addition, an inverse correlation has been shown between Pb shot ingestion rates and population trends of waterfowl in Europe (Mateo 2009), and Pb poisoning is suggested as a major cause of mortality of several endangered species (Fisher et al 2006;Taggart et al 2009). …”

Section: Communicated By C Gortázarmentioning

confidence: 99%

Use of grit supplements by waterbirds: an experimental assessment of strategies to reduce lead poisoning

et al. 2010

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The ingestion of spent Pb shot due to confusion with grit or inadvertently with food particles causes Pb poisoning in a large number of waterbirds, this being one of the main causes of mortality for some species. Lead ammunition for hunting is being progressively banned in more countries, while grit supplementation has been proposed as a management measure to reduce the ingestion of deposited Pb shot. Studies of grit selection with waterfowl in semicaptivity and in the wild were undertaken to evaluate preferences in the colour and geochemical composition of grit, whether it was available dry or in water, its position within the wetland and the relationship between grit ingestion and feeding behaviour. Grit ingestion was higher when food was included in the treatments. In the absence of food, red grit was taken in higher amounts than grey in semi-captivity but not in the wild. Siliceous grit was taken in a higher amount than calcareous when offered dry, but not in water. No differences in the amount of ingested grit were found among different positions within the wetland. The number of feeding attempts in plots supplemented with grit was higher than in those without grit, although the highest numbers of feeding birds were found in plots supplemented with food. Grit ingestion in waterfowl is intimately associated with feeding behaviour. To optimize the effectiveness of grit supplementation to reduce the risk of Pb poisoning in waterfowl, calcareous and siliceous grit may be combined and applied in feeding sites or mixed with bait to attract birds.

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A review of lead poisoning from ammunition sources in terrestrial birds

Cited by 295 publications

References 87 publications

Blood lead concentrations in free-ranging Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) from South Africa

Blood lead concentrations in free-ranging Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) from South Africa

Two decades of cumulative impacts to survivorship of endangered California condors in California

Use of grit supplements by waterbirds: an experimental assessment of strategies to reduce lead poisoning

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