“…The metal oxide NPs include titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) (Kiwi et al, 2014), zinc oxide (ZnO) (Modi et al, 2022a(Modi et al, , 2023bOnyszko et al, 2022), iron oxide (Fe 2 O 3 /Fe 3 O 4 ) (Pan et al, 2022;Yadav et al, 2023a), magnesium oxide (MgO) (Dabhane et al, 2022), copper oxide (CuO) (Maliki et al, 2022), alumina (Al 2 O 3 ), and many more (Ravichandran, 2010;Guerra et al, 2018). Among non-metallic ones, the most prominent are silica oxide (SiO 2 ) (Huang et al, 2022;Yadav et al, 2023c), graphene, and carbon nanotubes (CNTs) (Guerra et al, 2018). Out of all the metal oxides, ZnO and TiO 2 have gained a lot of attention in recent years due to their photocatalytic properties (Wang et al, 2021a;Zhao et al, 2022).…”