A neurophysiological perspective on the integration between incidental learning and cognitive control

Abstract

Adaptive behaviour requires interaction between neurocognitive systems. Yet, the possibility of concurrent cognitive control and incidental sequence learning remains contentious. We designed an experimental procedure of cognitive conflict monitoring that follows a pre-defined sequence unknown to participants, in which either statistical or rule-based regularities were manipulated. We show that participants learnt the statistical differences in the sequence when stimulus conflict was high. Neurophysiological (EEG) analyses confirmed but also specified the behavioural results: the nature of conflict, the type of sequence learning, and the stage of information processing jointly determine whether cognitive conflict and sequence learning support or compete with each other. Especially statistical learning has the potential to modulate conflict monitoring. Cognitive conflict and incidental sequence learning can engage in cooperative fashion when behavioural adaptation is challenging. Three replication and follow-up experiments provide insights into the generalizability of these results and suggest that the interaction of learning and cognitive control is dependent on the multifactorial aspects of adapting to a dynamic environment. The study indicates that connecting the fields of cognitive control and incidental learning is advantageous to achieve a synergistic view of adaptive behaviour.

Independent and interactive dynamics between statistical learning and inhibitory control

“…This result might be interpreted as a cooperation between statistical learning and inhibitory control: If one process cannot properly support the task goal 21 (i.e., respond correctly to the target), another process would replace it. In line with this, it was recently shown in a combined Stroop-ASRT task that an actual cooperative interaction emerged only when the task was challenging with high overall complexity (29). Conversely, the cooperative interaction we found here did not significantly enhance statistical learning under high conflict or ease interference suppression under predictable conditions but manifested in conflict adaptation.…”

“…The independent operation of statistical learning and inhibitory control we found (Figure 2) contradicts our hypotheses formulated based on earlier studies. The expected improved (29,30,33) or reduced (31, 32) statistical learning in the incongruent condition was not found. Similarly, no reliable evidence was found for the reduced interference suppression for predictable relative to unpredictable trials (30,50,51).…”

“…We expected a comparable degree of statistical learning in the congruent condition; however, due to the facilitatory effect of congruent flankers, statistical learning could also be improved in this condition relative to the neutral one. In the incongruent condition, based on earlier studies, we expected either improved (29,30,33) or reduced (31, 32) statistical learning relative to the neutral and/or congruent conditions. Improved statistical learning in the congruent and incongruent conditions would indicate a cooperative interaction between the two processes, while reduced statistical learning would indicate their competition.…”

“…Finally, the fourth category of studies employs paradigms that combine the key features of statistical learning and executive functions, such as statistical-sequential dependencies across stimuli and conflicts between task-relevant and task-irrelevant dimensions (e.g., 29,30). Unlike the first category, which examines the relationship between trait-like differences in statistical learning and executive functions, studies in the second, third, and fourth categories aim to uncover real-time and/or state-like interactions between these processes (as exceptions, see 13,26).…”

“…On the one hand, studies have shown that higher executive control demands impair the expression of statistical learning (31,32). On the other hand, improved statistical learning or the improved expression of statistical learning has been found under high conflict (29,30,(33)(34)(35). Furthermore, the independent operation of the two processes have also been observed (4).…”