A measure of client defensiveness.

Abstract

R ESISTANCE BY A PERSON IN PSYCHOTHERAPY occasioned the founding of psychoanalysis. 7 Defense mechanisms have become popular as. well as professional conceptional tools. 6 Yet the objective investigation of defensive processes in psychotherapy has been limited.Frenkel-Brunswik's study of mechanisms of self-deception revealed interesting correlations between self-deception and social and academic maladjustment in university students. 5 Frank studied reactions of subjects to verbal and behavioral demands, classifying them from complete acceptance to absolute resistance. 4 These studies utilized the methods of comparing self ratings with judges' ratings and behavior-rating scales. In his survey of objective studies of psychoanalytic concepts, Sears notes that psychoanalytic formulations do not lend themselves well to objective study. 13 Gould's study of repression is probably one of the neatest experimental demonstrations of a defense mechanism. 8 Interpretations of Rorschach protocols have revealed useful insights into such defense-related phenomena as the balance of spontaneity and rigidity in the personality, the emotional tensions underlying behavior and the extent to which the subject distorts reality. 1 -2 The basis for interpreting Rorschach responses in undergoing continuous study toward improving objectivity. A group of studies more closely related to the present one from * Acknowledgments are gratefully rendered to Dr. E. H. Porter, Jr., of the University of Chicago Counseling Center, Gerald V. Haigh, Edward R. Steadman and Ralph H. Goldner who served as judges and to Dr. A. I. Rabin, then of Michael Reese Hospital, who made the Rorschach interpretations.

Content-analysis studies of psychotherapy.

“…45-60). Among the nondirective therapists, Royer (87), Snyder (Ql), Curran (17), Raimy (73), Hogan (34), Haigh (31), Stock (93), Hoffman (33), Kahn (41), and others have developed measures of various kinds. We shall choose several measures for special comment, because they illustrate the problems involved in such classifications.…”

“…Haigh's measure of defensive-ness. Haigh (31) developed a measure of defensiveness, building on previous work by Hogan (34). Haigh defined defensive behavior as behavior that a This definition seems essentially the same as the psychoanalytic definition of "resistance."…”

Effects on clients of a reflective and a leading type of psychotherapy.

“…Five main variables and one composite variable were based on clients' verbal behavior in the first four interviews. A tentative classification system based in part on previous research (4,5,15,18,19,27) was devised by the four authors. A pilot study on nonexperimental recorded interviews produced several modifications of the tentative system.…”

A theory of threat and defense.

“…The theory appears useful in level of aspiration studies, in the analysis of comments of subjects performing below their set levels of aspira-tion. In another paper, the writer has reported the development and evaluation of a method of analyzing interviews for client defensiveness [3]. Summary A theory of threat and defense has been presented in terms of a theory of self-emphasizing cognitive determinants of behavior.…”

“…An investigation of the measurement of the amount of defensiveness exhibited by clients in counseling stimulated the development of the theory. In another paper, the writer has presented the method of measuring client defensiveness in terms of the theory [3], Theory of Self and Behavior A question that persists when one attempts rigorously to devise a conception of threat comes when the question is asked, threat to what? Current literature reflects conceptions of threat to the self, to the ego, to the integration of the self, to the security at the self, and so forth.…”