“…An important goal of research on STEM learning is to explain how experts come to understand these abstract concepts, and how this understanding is shaped by the acquisition of knowledge and experience over time. Although various methodologies have been used to characterize the differences between expert and novice knowledge representations in the sciences, such as card-sorting tasks (Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser, 1981;Smith et al, 2013;Wolf, Dougherty, & Kortemeyer, 2012), concept inventories (Hestenes, Wells, & Swackhamer, 1992;Steif & Dantzler, 2005), and concept maps (Hwang, Yang, & Wang, 2013;Novak, 1990;Novak & Cañas, 2008;Zohar & Barzilai, 2013), we still know little about how such knowledge is represented in the brain by distributed patterns of neural activity. Here we test how conceptual change resulting from a STEM learning task about Newtonian force is represented in changes in neural activity patterns.…”