A comprehensive review of spermidine: Safety, health effects, absorption and metabolism, food materials evaluation, physical and chemical processing, and bioprocessing

Abstract

Spermidine, a natural autophagy inducer, has a variety of health effects, such as antitumor, antiaging, anti‐inflammation, cardiovascular protection, and neuromodulation. It has been a hot topic in the field of food processing, and current research findings suggest that spermidine‐rich foods may be used in intervention and prevention of age‐related diseases. In this article, recent findings on the safety, health effects, absorption and metabolism of spermidine were reviewed, and advances in food processing, including the raw materials evaluation, physical and chemical processing, and biological processing of spermidine, were highlighted. In particular, the core metabolic pathways, key gene targets, and efficient metabolic engineering strategies involved in the biosynthesis of spermidine and its precursors were discussed. Moreover, limitations and future perspectives of spermidine research were proposed. The purpose of this review is to provide new insights on spermidine from its safety to its food processing, which will advance the commercial production and applications of spermidine‐rich foods and nutraceuticals.

Spermidine Alleviates Intrauterine Hypoxia-Induced Offspring Newborn Myocardial Mitochondrial Damage in Rats by Inhibiting Oxidative Stress and Regulating Mitochondrial Quality Control

“…Zhu et al reported that polyamine levels were lower in the umbilical vein plasma from intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) porcine fetuses, and supplementary SPD to the mother may prevent IUGR ( 48 ). Spermidine is a compound with reasonable safety and lower toxicity ( 49 ). The increasing numbers of preclinical and clinical studies have indicated that dietary SPD has health effects such as antiaging, cardiovascular protection, neuromodulation, and anti-inflammatory functions, such as intraperitoneal injection of SPD (50 mg/kg) in mice protects against collagen-induced arthritis by inhibiting the polarization of M1 macrophages in synovial tissue ( 50 ).…”

Differential Role of Active Compounds in Mitophagy and Related Neurodegenerative Diseases

“…Spermidine has three positively charged amino groups, which are very important for its different positive effects [ 157 ]. At the cellular and molecular levels, spermidine protects proteins from glycation [ 158 , 159 ]; exhibits antioxidant properties [ 160 , 161 , 162 ]; is involved in a number of biological processes such as cell proliferation, cell cycle, and apoptosis [ 54 , 111 ]; has an anti-inflammatory effect by suppressing NFκB-dependent pro-inflammatory cytokines [ 163 ]; and promotes autophagy induction by inhibiting EP300 acetyltransferase, leading to deacetylation of a cytosolic autophagy-associated protein [ 164 ].…”

High-Dose Spermidine Supplementation Does Not Increase Spermidine Levels in Blood Plasma and Saliva of Healthy Adults: A Randomized Placebo-Controlled Pharmacokinetic and Metabolomic Study

“…Since spermidine supplementation has been postulated as a possible means of therapeutically targeting several diseases [3,7], translational approaches with spermidine are a hot topic. Therefore, our results have considerable significance for future clinical research.…”

“…Spermidine is a biogenic polyamine that plays a crucial role in cellular homeostasis, cell growth, proliferation, and autophagy [1][2][3]. Research has found a relevant role for biogenic polyamines in both health and disease [4,5].…”