A comprehensive analysis of penile cancer in the region with the highest worldwide incidence reveals new insights into the disease

Abstract

Background Although penile cancer (PC) is uncommon in developed countries, it is widespread in developing countries. The state of Maranhão (Northeast, Brazil) has the highest global incidence recorded for PC, and, despite its socioeconomic vulnerability, it has been attributed to human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. This study aimed to determine the histopathological features, the prevalence of HPV infection, and the immunohistochemical profile of PC in Maranhão. Methods A retrospective cohort of 200 PC cases were evaluated. HPV detection was performed using nested-PCR followed by direct sequencing for genotyping. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) was performed using monoclonal antibodies anti-p16INK4a, p53, and ki-67. Results Our data revealed a delay of 17 months in diagnosis, a high rate of penile amputation (96.5%), and HPV infection (80.5%) in patients from Maranhão (Molecular detection). We demonstrated the high rate of HPV in PC also by histopathological and IHC analysis. Most patients presented koilocytosis (75.5%), which was associated with those reporting more than 10 different sexual partners during their lifetime (p = 0.001). IHC revealed frequent p16INK4a overexpression (26.0%) associated with basaloid (p < 0.001) and high-grade tumors (p = 0.008). Interestingly, p16 appears not to be a better prognostic factor in our disease-free survival analysis, as previously reported. We also demonstrated high ki-67 and p53 expression in a subset of cases, which was related to worse prognostic factors such as high-grade tumors, angiolymphatic and perineural invasion, and lymph node metastasis. We found a significant impact of high ki-67 (p = 0.002, log-rank) and p53 (p = 0.032, log-rank) expression on decreasing patients’ survival, as well as grade, pT, stage, pattern, and depth of invasion (p < 0.05, log-rank). Conclusions Our data reaffirmed the high incidence of HPV infection in PC cases from Maranhão and offer new insights into potential factors that may contribute to the high PC incidence in the region. We highlighted the possible association of HPV with worse clinical prognosis factors, differently from what was observed in other regions. Furthermore, our IHC analysis reinforces p16, ki-67, and p53 expression as important diagnosis and/or prognosis biomarkers, potentially used in the clinical setting in emerging countries such as Brazil.

Cyclin D1 expression in penile cancer

“…The state of Maranhão, Brazil, registers the highest global incidence of PC, and has the worst Human Development Index (0.639) [ 1 , 2 , 4 , 15 ]. In our sample, there was a predominance of patients younger than their seventh decade of life, with low educational level, poor hygienic conditions, and phimosis, as well as smokers and those who engaged in zoophilia.…”

“…Brazil holds the global record for PC incidence [ 2 ]. The etiology of PC is heterogeneous and remains under investigation; however, some risk factors, such as phimosis, poor hygiene, alcoholism and smoking, and human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, have been proposed [ 1 – 4 ].…”

“…Brazil holds the global record for PC incidence [2]. The etiology of PC is heterogeneous and remains under investigation; however, some risk factors, such as phimosis, poor hygiene, alcoholism and smoking, and human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, have been proposed [1][2][3][4]. www.oncotarget.com Among these risk factors, HPV infection appears to play a role in approximately one-half of all cases.…”

Trajectories of squamous cell carcinoma antigen and outcomes of patients with advanced penile cancer after chemotherapy based on paclitaxel, ifosfamid, and cisplatin regimen

“…Penile cancer (PC) is a rare yet highly lethal malignancy 1 . In economically undeveloped regions of the world, it even accounts for nearly 10% of cancer burdens 2,3 . For advanced PC cases, a multimodal strategy which combines chemotherapy and consolidation surgery shows great advantages 4,5 .…”

“… 1 In economically undeveloped regions of the world, it even accounts for nearly 10% of cancer burdens. 2 , 3 For advanced PC cases, a multimodal strategy which combines chemotherapy and consolidation surgery shows great advantages. 4 , 5 Paclitaxel, ifosfamide, and cisplatin (TIP) chemotherapy is a well‐known regimen which could induce marked tumor responses and thus better prognosis.…”