A 256×256 45/65nm 3D-stacked SPAD-based direct TOF image sensor for LiDAR applications with optical polar modulation for up to 18.6dB interference suppression

Ximenes, Augusto Ronchini; Lee, Myoung-Jae; Yamashita, Y.; Yaung, Dun–Nian; Charbon, Edoardo

doi:10.1109/isscc.2018.8310201

Cited by 70 publications

(86 citation statements)

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“…A DTOF measurement is generally performed using TCSPC, where detected events are accumulated over multiple laser pulses shone onto the target. The recovered signal is a train of pulses represented as a histogram corresponding to the time-of-arrival of individual photons incident on the SPAD with a distinguishable peak centered around the target location [8,10,11]. The measured timing information (∆T in Figure 2) is then combined with the speed of light, c, to estimate the distance, d, of the target from the sensor.…”

Section: As Shown Inmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Another drawback of ITOF sensors is their limited ability to distinguish two nearby objects [6]. DTOF sensors, on the other hand, are able to mitigate these challenges with detection ranges reaching up to several hundred meters [7,8], principally determined by the available optical power and their innate ability to discriminate multiple echoes easily [9]. This paper focuses on single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) based DTOF sensors for LiDAR.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In DTOF sensors, time-to-digital converters (TDCs) are typically used for this purpose [8,[10][11][12][13][14]. TDCs have been implemented at per-pixel level, reported in References [10,15], as well as in shared architectures [8,13]. Most often, due to the large volume of data being generated in a DTOF sensor and limited output bandwidth, shared architectures have become more viable solutions.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Modeling and Analysis of a Direct Time-of-Flight Sensor Architecture for LiDAR Applications

Zhang

Charbon

2019

Sensors

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Tel.: +41-216-954-413 † This paper is an extended version of our paper published in: Padmanabhan, P.; Zhang, C.; Charbon, E.Analysis of a modular SPAD-based direct time-of-flight depth sensor architecture for wide dynamic range scenes in a LiDAR system. Abstract:Direct time-of-flight (DTOF) is a prominent depth sensing method in light detection and ranging (LiDAR) applications. Single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) arrays integrated in DTOF sensors have demonstrated excellent ranging and 3D imaging capabilities, making them promising candidates for LiDARs. However, high background noise due to solar exposure limits their performance and degrades the signal-to-background noise ratio (SBR). Noise-filtering techniques based on coincidence detection and time-gating have been implemented to mitigate this challenge but 3D imaging of a wide dynamic range scene is an ongoing issue. In this paper, we propose a coincidence-based DTOF sensor architecture to address the aforementioned challenges. The architecture is analyzed using a probabilistic model and simulation. A flash LiDAR setup is simulated with typical operating conditions of a wide angle field-of-view (FOV = 40 • ) in a 50 klux ambient light assumption. Single-point ranging simulations are obtained for distances up to 150 m using the DTOF model. An activity-dependent coincidence is proposed as a way to improve imaging of wide dynamic range targets. An example scene with targets ranging between 8-60% reflectivity is used to simulate the proposed method. The model predicts that a single threshold cannot yield an accurate reconstruction and a higher (lower) reflective target requires a higher (lower) coincidence threshold. Further, a pixel-clustering scheme is introduced, capable of providing multiple simultaneous timing information as a means to enhance throughput and reduce timing uncertainty. Example scenes are reconstructed to distinguish up to 4 distinct target peaks simulated with a resolution of 500 ps. Alternatively, a time-gating mode is simulated where in the DTOF sensor performs target-selective ranging. Simulation results show reconstruction of a 10% reflective target at 20 m in the presence of a retro-reflective equivalent with a 60% reflectivity at 5 m within the same FOV.

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Section: As Shown Inmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Modeling and Analysis of a Direct Time-of-Flight Sensor Architecture for LiDAR Applications

Zhang

Charbon

2019

Sensors

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“…A large body of work is available Figure 7: Recent SPAD concepts for imagers revolve around 3D integration, possibly combined with microlenses to further maximize the fill factor. (a) A 3D integration concept image, (b) a two-tier implementation with additional microlenses [155], and (c, d) cross sections of different imagers using three tiers [156,157]. Frontside illumination is used in (c), backside illumination in (b) and (d).…”

Section: Other Biophotonics Applications and Sensor Conceptsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Frontside illumination is used in (c), backside illumination in (b) and (d). (b-d) Images reprinted from [155][156][157].…”

Section: Other Biophotonics Applications and Sensor Conceptsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Single-photon avalanche diode imagers in biophotonics: review and outlook

et al. 2019

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Single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD) arrays are solid-state detectors that offer imaging capabilities at the level of individual photons, with unparalleled photon counting and time-resolved performance. This fascinating technology has progressed at a very fast pace in the past 15 years, since its inception in standard CMOS technology in 2003. A host of architectures have been investigated, ranging from simpler implementations, based solely on off-chip data processing, to progressively “smarter” sensors including on-chip, or even pixel level, time-stamping and processing capabilities. As the technology has matured, a range of biophotonics applications have been explored, including (endoscopic) FLIM, (multibeam multiphoton) FLIM-FRET, SPIM-FCS, super-resolution microscopy, time-resolved Raman spectroscopy, NIROT and PET. We will review some representative sensors and their corresponding applications, including the most relevant challenges faced by chip designers and end-users. Finally, we will provide an outlook on the future of this fascinating technology.

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Recent Advances and Future Perspectives of Single‐Photon Avalanche Diodes for Quantum Photonics Applications

et al. 2020

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Photonic quantum technologies promise a revolution of the world of information processing, from simulation and computing to communication and sensing, thanks to the many advantages of exploiting single photons as quantum information carriers. In this scenario, single‐photon detectors play a key role. On the one hand, superconducting nanowire single‐photon detectors (SNSPDs) are able to provide remarkable performance on a broad spectral range, but their applicability is often limited by the need of cryogenic operating temperatures. On the other hand, single‐photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) overcome the intrinsic limitations of SNSPDs by providing a valid alternative at room temperature or slightly below. In this paper, the authors review the fundamental principles of the SPAD operation and provide a thorough discussion of the recent progress made in this field, comparing the performance of these devices with the requirements of the quantum photonics applications. In the end, the authors conclude with their vision of the future by summarizing prospects and unbeaten paths that can open new perspectives in the field of photonic quantum information processing.

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A 256×256 45/65nm 3D-stacked SPAD-based direct TOF image sensor for LiDAR applications with optical polar modulation for up to 18.6dB interference suppression

Cited by 70 publications

References 1 publication

Modeling and Analysis of a Direct Time-of-Flight Sensor Architecture for LiDAR Applications

Modeling and Analysis of a Direct Time-of-Flight Sensor Architecture for LiDAR Applications

Single-photon avalanche diode imagers in biophotonics: review and outlook

Recent Advances and Future Perspectives of Single‐Photon Avalanche Diodes for Quantum Photonics Applications

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