5. Metalwork: Artifice and artistry

Bronze Alloys from Canaan During the Middle Bronze Age

“…However, Pb is only slightly soluble in Cu and forms a separate metallic phase in the alloy, thus leaded bronze is relatively weak (Cowell & La Niece, 1991). According to Craddock (1976), the use of Pb in bronze is to increase the amount of metal available to fill the volume, and Gale & Stoss-Gale (1982) report that bronze with more than a small percentage of Pb is difficult to work by hammering.…”

Technical and chemical examination of the brass bucket with a hunting scene

“…In addition the low zinc content (<28%) combined with an high iron content leads to the same conclusion. 79 Indeed the iron content given for the composition of the Benaki situh and the other buckets is high and corresponds to the percentage detected in some Sardinian oxhide ingots 80 (the Uluburum or the Encomi ingots). 81 This amount ranges from 0.1% to 4.6%, which also indicates that the copper was probably not refined or multiple recycled.…”

“…59 Many of the textual references indicate that the process originated in Asia Minor, in the region of Phrygia, near zinc deposits which are known to have been worked in antiquity. 60 The maximum zinc content that could be obtained by this process was 28%. 61 This amount con forms with the alloying of copper with zinc oxide (cala mine), and not with metallic zinc where the final product (brass) would contain a higher percentage, comparable to modern brass or commercial high zinc brass.…”

“…In addition the cementation process allows impuri ties from the zinc ore to become incorporated into the alloy. 64 This problem is a possible explanation of the presence of so many elements in the composition of the buckets, though it may also be connected with the other major constituent used (copper), where many impuri ties could have been incorporated from the copper ore. It could also result from the use of scrap metal derived from many sources.…”