A comprehensive review on carotenoids in foods and feeds: status quo, applications, patents, and research needs

Abstract

Carotenoids are isoprenoids widely distributed in foods that have been always part of the diet of humans. Unlike the other so-called food bioactives, some carotenoids can be converted into retinoids exhibiting vitamin A activity, which is essential for humans. Furthermore, they are much more versatile as they are relevant in foods not only as sources of vitamin A, but also as natural pigments, antioxidants, and health-promoting compounds. Lately, they are also attracting interest in the context of nutricosmetics, as they have been shown to provide cosmetic benefits when ingested in appropriate amounts. In this work, resulting from the collaborative work of participants of the COST Action European network to advance carotenoid research and applications in agrofood and health (EUROCAROTEN, www.eurocaroten.eu, https://www.cost.eu/actions/CA15136/ #tabsjName:overview) research on carotenoids in foods and feeds is thoroughly reviewed covering aspects such as analysis, carotenoid food sources, carotenoid databases, effect of processing and storage conditions, new trends in carotenoid extraction, daily intakes, use as human, and feed additives are addressed. Furthermore, classical and recent patents regarding the obtaining and formulation of carotenoids for several purposes are pinpointed and briefly discussed. Lastly, emerging research lines as well as research needs are highlighted.

European Database of Carotenoid Levels in Foods. Factors Affecting Carotenoid Content

“…To monitor this process, an internal standard is often added by some researchers, for example β-apo-8′-carotenal or echinenone. Despite being a lengthy step, saponification is often essential to hydrolyze the carotenoid esters, to eliminate lipids and eliminate chlorophylls [ 1 , 2 ]. However, only 10% of the papers refer the inclusion/not inclusion of this step.…”

“…The lack of quantitative data for a carotenoid in the tables meant in many cases that the carotenoid was not reported in the paper and not that the food did not contain that carotenoid. This has been common for the colorless carotenoids phytoene and phytofluene, which have been very often ignored [ 2 ].…”

“…There are many studies indicating that carotenoid-rich diets can have a positive role in human health and contribute to reduce the risk of diseases associated with aging, such as certain cancers, cardiovascular disease, bone, skin or eye disorders and may be beneficial for mental and metabolic health, during pregnancy and early life. In addition to their role as colorants and bioactive compounds with possible positive effects on human health, some carotenoids also have a well-defined role as provitamin A nutrient, being key in combating vitamin A deficiency, especially in areas with low consumption of animal foods [ 2 , 3 ].…”

“…Apart from retinoids, carotenoids can also be enzymatically cleaved by humans into apocarotenoids and other derivatives, which are eliciting increasing interest, as they may be involved in biological actions. Given their versatility, carotenoids are importance continues growing in the era of sustainable healthy diets and for the development of innovative products such as novel foods or nutricosmetics, among others [ 2 , 3 , 13 ].…”

“…On the other hand, there is a clear dispersion of food carotenoids composition data. In general, food composition databases only include β-carotene, the carotenoid with the highest theoretical vitamin A activity and probably the most ubiquitous in foods [ 1 , 2 ].…”