Salivary diagnostic markers in males and females during rest and exercise

Abstract

BackgroundSaliva is a useful diagnostic tool for analysis in sports, exercise and nutrition research, as collection is easy and non-invasive and it contains a large number of analytes affected by a range of physiological and pathological stressors and conditions. This study examined key salivary electrolytes and stress and immune markers in males and females at rest and during exercise.MethodsUnstimulated whole saliva from 20 healthy, recreationally active participants (8 males and 12 females) was analysed for flow rate, osmolality, sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), chloride (Cl−), secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA), α-amylase activity and cortisol during both rest and moderate intensity (70% peak power) cycling exercise in a randomised crossover design. Each trial lasted 60 min and sampling was carried out at 15 and 45 min after the start of the trial. Saliva was collected using the gold-standard drool method; participants were required to provide at least 1 mL sample over 2 or 3-min period.ResultsFemales showed a greater response to steady-state exercise stress than males, with significant increases in osmolality (P < 0.001), α-amylase activity (P = 0.001) and secretion rate (P = 0.023) and SIgA secretion rate (P = 0.023), with trends for an increase in K+ (P = 0.053) and decrease in Cl− (P = 0.067). There were no differences between rest and exercise for any salivary analytes in males. In addition, females showed a trend for higher levels of cortisol than males at both rest (P = 0.099) and exercise (P = 0.070), as well as a higher heart rate (P < 0.001) and greater ratings of perceived exertion (P < 0.001) during the exercise trial. The coordination of the two stress response pathways (α-amylase vs cortisol) was positive in males (r = 0.799; P = 0.017) yet negative in females (r = −0.475; P = 0.036).ConclusionsMales and females show a markedly different response to steady-state exercise stress as measured in unstimulated whole saliva.

Does caffeine exert dose‐response effects on saliva secretory IgA following prolonged submaximal running?

“…A low dose of caffeine may also be better tolerated by some athletes who may be more “sensitive” to its effects due to their genetic predisposition for caffeine and at this dose unwanted negative side effects are unlikely to occur. It should also be pointed out that at this time the findings from the present study can only be applied to male athletes due to the sex differences that occur with both the concentration of saliva SIgA and caffeine pharmacokinetics . Currently, little to no research has been conducted on female athletes and how caffeine ingestion may impact upon their immunity in response to prolonged submaximal exercise.…”

Salivary levels of phosphorus and urea as indices of their plasma levels in nephropathic patients

“…The use of saliva for laboratory tests has been investigated in various medical areas because saliva could be used as a noninvasive diagnostic tool . An important prerequisite for the use of saliva in diagnostic workup is that the salivary levels of the marker associated with a given disorder should mirror the profile of the marker in biological samples used as gold standard in medical practice.…”

“…An important prerequisite for the use of saliva in diagnostic workup is that the salivary levels of the marker associated with a given disorder should mirror the profile of the marker in biological samples used as gold standard in medical practice. Previous observations indicated that correlations between plasma concentrations and saliva concentrations are detectable for some but not for all analytes . It is well established that small molecules as phosphorus and urea are measurable in saliva .…”

Peer Review #2 of "Validity and reliability evidence of a point of care assessment of salivary cortisol and α-amylase: a pre-registered study (v0.2)"

“…The stress placed on the body by exercise can be measured using various biological markers in saliva, hair, and blood. Two key systems in the neuroendocrine response to stress are the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which drive responses to assist the body in coping with the applied stressor (Rutherford-Markwick, Starck, Dulson, & Ali, 2017;Strahler, Skoluda, Kappert, & Nater, 2017). Salivary markers of HPA axis and ANS activity have increased in popularity recently, as there are several metabolites that can be detected via this non-invasive technique, using only small sample volumes (i.e., ~0.5-1 ml) (Lee, Kim, & Choi, 2015;Papacosta & Nassis, 2011).…”