Etiology, symptoms and prevention of chalkbrood disease: a literature review

Abstract

The fungus Ascosphaera apis, responsible for causing the chalkbrood disease of honey bees, is widely present in temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, but has also spread to other regions of the world such as Brazil. Although it is not usually lethal for the colony, it can reduce its population, hampering its development. This study is a review on the disease that presents a broad overview of its development, identification methods as well as ways to control it. Research shows that chalkbrood is associated with several factors and is most frequently found in colonies of Apis bees during the spring, when there is excess humidity and sudden temperature changes in the hive. Other factors such as viral or bacterial infection, the presence of the ectoparasite Varroa destructor, pesticide poisoning and poor nutrition of nurse bees can also affect its incidence and severity. Field diagnosis is made based on the presence of hardened mummified brood in the pupal stage, of white or black color, in the cells and entrance. Affected cells show dead pupae covered with white mycelia, resembling cotton, or hardened, dry and brittle, resembling chalk pieces, which originated the name. To date, there are no efficient methods to reduce the damage caused by chalkbrood. Genetic selection of bees with higher hygienic behavior and disease resistance is recommended.

Micronutrient Deficiency May Be Associated with the Onset of Chalkbrood Disease in Honey Bees

“…This happens due to a reduction in workforce caused by mycosis [25]. Although it is usually not lethal to the colony, it can hinder its development by reducing its population [26]. While adult bees are not susceptible to this pathogen, they can transmit the disease within and between beehives [19].…”

Microfungal flora of Apis mellifera anatoliaca (Hymenoptera: Apidae) and Varroa destructor (Mesostigmata: Varroidae) from the Eastern Black Sea Region and fungal vector capacity in honey bee colonies

“…Additionally, the close relatedness of the black queen cell virus (BQCV) isolated from the fungus Ascosphaera apis to bee samples emphasizes the possibility for viral crossover between fungal and bee species [ 10 ]. Ascosphaera apis , which causes chalkbrood disease in honey bees, has been commonly observed in temperate countries, including Brazil [ 11 ]. Melipona scutellaris bees are vulnerable to the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana , emphasizing the need to study how fungal infections affect diverse bee populations [ 12 ].…”

Probiotic Properties and Potentiality of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum Strains for the Biological Control of Chalkbrood Disease

“…In addition, social insect species, such as A. mellifera, exhibit behaviors such as flower sharing to collect pollen and nectar, which might increase the transmission of persistent chalkbrood spores between colonies [ 9 ]. Drifting workers and drones may also contribute to the spread of infection [ 10 ].…”