Stress and long-term memory retrieval: a systematic review

Abstract

Introduction: The experience of stressful events can alter brain structures involved in memory encoding, storage and retrieval. Here we review experimental research assessing the impact of the stress-related hormone cortisol on long-term memory retrieval. Method: A comprehensive literature search was conducted on PubMed, Web of Science and PsycNet databases with the following terms: "stress," "long-term memory," and "retrieval." Studies were included in the review if they tested samples of healthy human participants, with at least one control group, and with the onset of the stress intervention occurring after the encoding phase and shortly (up to one hour) before the final memory test. Results: Thirteen studies were included in the qualitative synthesis (N = 962) and were classified according to the time elapsed between stress induction and memory retrieval (stress-retrieval delay), the stress-inducing protocol (stressor), the time of day in which stress induction took place, sex, and age of participants. Most studies induced stress with the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) between 15 and 25 minutes before the final memory (mostly recall) test and showed significant increases in cortisol levels and memory impairment. Discussion: The reviewed studies indicate that stress does impair retrieval, particularly when induced with the TSST, in the afternoon, up to 45 minutes before the onset of the final memory test, in healthy young men. These results may inform future research on the impact of stress-induced cortisol surges on memory retrieval.

The interplay between genetic variation and gene expression of the glucocorticoid receptor gene NR3C1 and blood cortisol levels on verbal memory and hippocampal volumes

“…This links genetic variation in the GR gene to the level of glucocorticoids, which may be caused by either differences in binding affinities based on the genetic variation or a feedback regulation of cortisol secretion of NR3C1 . Our data also confirm the established role of cortisol in memory function, especially in response to stress [ 19 ]. Participants with higher cortisol levels revealed a lower verbal memory score also for the recall of neutral words without an external stressor.…”

“…In a double-blind study [ 18 ], cortisol was found to be involved in reconsolidation processes with suppressing cortisol leading to a strengthening of episodic memory. A review [ 19 ] confirmed that induced stress was associated with increases in cortisol levels and memory impairment. On the level of distinct brain regions, the hippocampus is the main target region for NR3C1 and NR3C2 gene expression in the brain as well as mainly involved in learning and memory function [ 20 , 21 ].…”

Marital status and post-COVID-19 conditions

“…During the COVID-19 pandemic, it was reported that single people are more prone to feel loneliness than those who do not live alone [ 4 ], and this feeling might lead to the development of a depressive state. Similarly, external stress may induce memory impairment increasing serum cortisol levels [ 5 ]. Although the association between marital status and psychological status in relation to post-COVID-19 has not widely been investigated, a report from China demonstrated that insomnia after COVID-19 was related to marital status [ 6 ].…”

A narrative review of immersive virtual reality’s ergonomics and risks at the workplace: cybersickness, visual fatigue, muscular fatigue, acute stress, and mental overload

“…Acute stress, in general, can impair executive functions (Shields et al 2016). According to LeBlanc (2009), stress reduces selective attention (Lee and Choo 2013;Bater and Jordan 2020), impairs working memory, enhances memory consolidation (Roesler and McGaugh 2019), and impairs memory recall/retrieval (Staresina and Wimber 2019;Klier et al 2020). Therefore, we can infer that stress could impair work performance when fulfilling tasks in VR depending on task typologies.…”