Comparative Evaluation of the Effects of Binzalkonium Chloride, Iodine, Gluteraldehyde and Hydrogen Peroxide Disinfectants against Avian Salmonellae Focusing on Genotypic Resistance Pattern of the Salmonellae Serotypes toward Benzalkonium Chloride

Abstract

Using disinfectants in poultry houses is a common practice to ban the zoonotic pathogens like Salmonella. A major concern in using disinfectants is the emergence of bacteria strains that resist some disinfectants. This phenomenon is manifested in the resistance of some Salmonella serotypes against quaternary ammonium compounds. Such resistance is attributed to qacED1 gene which may be possessed by some Salmonella serotypes. This work aimed to evaluate the resistance of Salmonella serotypes (S. Typhimurium, S. Infantis and S. Entiridis) against different disinfectants (benzalkonium chloride, iodine, gluteraldehyde and hydrogen peroxide). The effect of the disinfectants were evaluated by treatment of the bacteria with different concentrations (1:100, 200 and 400) at different temperatures and periods. Bacterial count was performed before and after the treatment. PCR for presence of qacED1 gene was also performed before and after the treatment. The biocidal effect of the disinfectants found to be dependent on concentration, temperature and treatment period in addition to the type of the disinfectant. Hydrogen peroxide proved to be the most active agent followed by gluteradehyde, iodine and benzalkonium chloride. A link between the resistance against benzalkonium chloride and the existence of qacED1 gene was proven in S. Typhimurium, whether treated or not treated with benzalkonium chloride.

In vitro Efficacy Testing of Some Commercial Disinfectants against Pathogenic Bacteria Isolated from Different Poultry Farms

“…Alkadox® disinfectant contains sodium hypochlorite (chlorine releasing agent) that has destructive action on bacterial cell membranes and oxidative action on irreversible bacterial enzymes, but are considered less stable disin-fectant and less effective in the presence of organic matter (Guastalli et al, 2016). Moreover, the Biodine® is an iodine compound disinfectant that exhibits a broad range of microbicidal activity against bacteria by iodination of lipids and oxidation of cytoplasmic membrane compounds but couldn't completely eliminate the tested microorganisms within 90 minutes expect at high concentration and only minimized the bacterial count at low concentration, that is the least effective tested disinfectants that highly affected by the presence of organic matter (Aksoy et al, 2020).…”

“…Commercial disinfectants were prepared according to manufacturer procedure or supplier guideline. The different concentrations of commercial disinfectant were prepared by using distilled water according to (Aksoy et al, 2020;Drauch et al, 2020).…”

“…The great problem of halogen releasing chemicals is related to their relatively high suppression by organic matter. The presence of chlorine as hypochlorite compounds acts as an oxidizing agent that destroys both the bacterial DNA and cell membrane (Qiao and Shao, 2010;Aksoy et al, 2020). Chlorine containing disinfectants can effectively kill different microbes like Staphylococcus aureus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Enterococcus and Enterobacter, even at a low concentration (Suwa et al, 2013).…”

Synergistic antibacterial effect of disinfectants and microbubble water to Salmonella Typhimurium

“…Not all disinfectants or disinfectant product formulations are equally effective, and some disinfectants are less effective than others (Cabrera et al, 2017;Gosling et al, 2017). A variety of researchers have extensively reviewed the chemical characteristics and modes of action of disinfectants that are commonly used in livestock units (Cabrera et al, 2017;Jang et al, 2017;Aksoy et al, 2020;Gómez-García et al, 2022). Various efforts have been made to control Salmonella, but it is still challenging to completely eradicate infections.…”

Role played by the environment in the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) through the food chain

“…Robust organisms such as S. enterica , E. coli , Klebsiella spp., MRSA and Enterococcus spp. can persist in the farm, hatchery or slaughter/processing environment as a result of inadequate cleaning and disinfection, biocide tolerance, especially to quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) (Al‐Johny and Alkhuzaee, 2019; Aksoy et al., 2020; Pang et al., 2020) recontamination from the external environment or reintroduction by movement of people, replacement animals, wildlife vectors, bioaerosols or contaminated equipment (Persoons et al., 2010; Swaggerty et al., 2018; Voss‐Rech et al., 2019; Castañeda‐Gulla et al., 2020). Exposure to certain biocides/heavy metals can also select for AMR and increase genetic transfer between bacteria (Silveira et al., 2013; Dunn et al., 2020).…”