A Histological Study on Venom Apparatus of Montivipera xanthina (Gray, 1849) (Serpentes, Viperidae)

Abstract

This is the first report describing morphological and histological structure of venom apparatus in

Current Knowledge on Snake Dry Bites

“…Finally, the apparatus ends with fangs, which are cone-shaped, tapered, and are usually curved, essentially making them into hollow venom delivering tubes [ 20 ]. Fangs can be replaced if lost or damaged, and some species even have reserve fangs that remain in a suspended and immature state until they are stimulated to develop [ 21 ]. The fangs are specialized for venom delivery, and some fangs have specialized even further to allow the snake to spit venom.…”

“…Additionally, in venomous colubrids ( sensu lato ) and elapids, the venom fang is attached to a stable maxillary bone, and for this reason it is always erect. In viperid snakes, the maxilla is capable of rotating, enabling the fang to be erected during a bite or laid parallel to the jaw when in the relaxed state [ 21 ]. Advanced snakes, which utilize venom for prey capture (colubrids, Viperidae, Elapidae, and Actraspidae) [ 20 ], are often referred to by the position of their fangs as either rear- or front-fanged snakes.…”

Sharp and fully loaded: 3D tissue reconstruction reveals how snake fangs stay deadly during fang replacement

“…Additionally, it is possible that the connection between the duct and the tubular fang is not the same across the three front-fanged venomous snake taxa. Physiological variation in glands (Fry et al, 2003(Fry et al, , 2008Gans, 1978;Kerkkamp, Casewell & Vonk, 2017;Kılıç, Akat & Arıkan, 2016;Kochva, 1978;Weinstein, Smith & Kardong, 2009), compressor muscles originating from a different muscle in all taxa (Kerkkamp, Casewell & Vonk, 2017)…”

“…Additionally, it is possible that the connection between the duct and the tubular fang is not the same across the three front‐fanged venomous snake taxa. Physiological variation in glands (Fry et al, 2003, 2008; Gans, 1978; Kerkkamp, Casewell & Vonk, 2017; Kılıç, Akat & Arıkan, 2016; Kochva, 1978; Weinstein, Smith & Kardong, 2009), compressor muscles originating from a different muscle in all taxa (Kerkkamp, Casewell & Vonk, 2017), and different fang designs (protero‐ or solenoglyphous) as well as the presence of a connection furrow or a completely smooth anterior fang surface (Berkovitz & Shellis, 2016; Chipman, 2009; Jackson, 2007; Jackson & Fritts, 1995; Kardong, 1979; Pyron et al, 2014; Vonk et al, 2008; Zahradnicek, Horacek & Tucker, 2008) indicate that the front‐fang venom delivery system (VDS) evolved independently in the two families and subfamily within the Colubroidea (Fry et al, 2006; Iwanaga & Suzuki, 1979; Vidal, 2002; Zeller, 1948).…”