The human milk oligosaccharide (HMO) fraction is the third largest solid component in milk colostrum, after lactose and lipids. The maximum concentration of HMO is observed in colostrum (more than 20 g L), while after about two weeks of lactation, this falls to about 12 14 g L in milk. 1) It is thought that human milk has a high content of neutral oligosaccharides, especially fucosyloligosaccharides. 2,3) Several studies on HMO have suggested that most of these substances remain undigested in the small intestine, 4 7) and thus reach the colon where they stimulate the growth of colonic microorganisms beneficial to human health, specifically bifidobacteria and lactobacilli. 8 11) The colonic microflora of the breast fed infant contains more than 90% bifidobacteria and lactobacilli, 12) whereas formula fed infants are more often colonized by Escherichia coli, Clostridium difficile or Bacteroides. 13) In addition, other functions have been attributed to HMO, including serving as a component of innate immunity by preventing the attachment of potential pathogens to the intestinal tract. 14) For example, some mainly fucosylated HMOs have been found to act as receptor homologs, inhibiting the binding of pathogens, such as enteropathogenic E. coli, Campylobacter jejuni, Vibrio cholerae and Salmonella fyris, to their host receptors. 15 18) A direct effect of HMOs or commercially available prebiotic oligosaccharides on the intestinal innate immune system has not, however, as yet been demonstrated. It has recently been reported that the feeding of prebiotic oligosaccharides (arabino galactan, short chain fructo oligosaccharide, iso malto dextrins, etc.) together with bifidobacteria (Bifidobacterium bifidum and B. longum subsp. infantis) has effects that may alter the course of rotavirus disease in BALB c mice. 19) This suggests that these prebiotic saccharides not only promote the growth of colonic bifidobacteria, but also act as a direct regulator of the intestinal innate immune system.All microorganisms contain distinct structures or microbe associated molecular patterns that are recognized via pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). It is well known that an important class of PRRs is TLRs. The TLRs, TLR
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